Substance Use

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Benda, B. B., R. F. Corwyn, and N. J. Toombs. 2001. “Recidivism among Adolescent Serious Offenders - Prediction of Entry into the Correctional System for Adults.” Criminal Justice and Behavior vol. 28, pp. 588-613.
Abstract: This is a 2-year follow-up study of 414 adolescents, age 17 years, to determine what static and dynamic factors predict recidivism or entry into the correctional system for adults. The strongest predictor is prior incarcerations, followed by age persons started committing crime, gang membership, age they started using alcohol/drugs, their MMPIpd scores, and chemical abuse score. The denial and asocial subscales of the Jesness Inventory and all the subscales of the Carlson Psychological Inventory are significantly associated with recidivism. Implications of the study are discussed. [Source: SC]

Jang, S. J. and B. R. Johnson. 2001. “Neighborhood Disorder, Individual Religiosity and Adolescent Use of Illicit Drugs: A Test of Multilevel Hypotheses.” Criminology vol. 39, pp. 109-+.
Abstract: We hypothesize about the relationships among perceiveid neighborhood disorder, individual religiosity, and adolescent use of illicit drugs, marijuana and hard drugs; and the age- varying effects of religiosity on illicit drug use. Applying hierarchical linear models to analyze the National Youth Survey data, We first find that neighborhood disorder and religiosity have hypothesized effects on illicit drug use independent of social bonding and social learning variables that partly mediate the effects. Second religiosity buffers the effects of neighborhood disorder on illicit drug use. Third, the effects of religiosity on illicit drug use become stronger throughout adolescence The implications of the findings are discussed. [Source: SC]

Mainous, R. O., A. G. Mainous, III, C. A. Martin, M. J. Oler, and A. S. Haney. 2001. “The Importance of Fulfilling Unmet Needs of Rural and Urban Adolescents with Substance Abuse.” Journal of Child & Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing vol. 14, pp. 32-40.
Abstract: PROBLEM. Because o f the negative impact on health of drug and alcohol use, this study examined adolescent needs and substance use. METHODS. Subjects (N =191) were adolescents aged 14 to 19 in a rural and an urban high school. A modified version of the Need Subscale from the Addiction Research Center Maturation Scale measured a feeling o f satisfaction related to meeting basic needs, and an investigator's prepared questionnaire elicited current use of alcohol, nicotine, and marijuana. FINDINGS. Individuals with feelings of unmet needs were more likely to be current drinkers. Rural/urban residence was not a significant predictor in a multivariate analysis, but religiosity was. CONCLUSIONS. A feeling of unmet needs seems to be an important factor in adolescent substance use. [Source: CI]

McCuller, W. J., S. Sussman, C. W. Dent, and L. Teran. 2001. “Concurrent Prediction of Drug Use among High-Risk Youth.” Addictive Behaviors vol. 26, pp. 137-142.
Abstract: Correlates of drug use were examined in a continuation high school sample (n = 1.315), using canonical correlation analysis. Fourteen demographic, attitudes/belief. and psychosocial pressure/anxiety-type variables were included as concurrent predictors. Eight drug-use-related measures were also placed into the analysis as outcome variables. Two factors were revealed. White ethnicity, not being Latino, all attitude/belief measures, and family conflict and depression showed relatively high loadings on the first predictor factor, and were associated with all drug-use measures. Latino ethnicity and being relatively unacculturated (i.e., tending to speak Spanish), most of the attitude/belief measures (but not sensation seeking or spirituality), and perceived peer approval to use drugs, trait anxiety, and depression showed relatively high loadings on the second predictor factor, and were associated with the hard-drug-use measures. These results suggest that there is a subgroup of unacculturated Latino youth who are anxious, who perceive they will achieve peer approval by using drugs, and who tend to use hard drugs. Indicated drug abuse prevention strategies may need to be tailored to this subgroup when developing and implementing programming. [Source: SC]

Merrill, R. M., R. D. Salazar, and N. W. Gardner. 2001. “Relationship between Family Religiosity and Drug Use Behavior among Youth.” Social Behavior and Personality vol. 29, pp. 347-357.
Abstract: This study evaluated the relationship between several dimensions of parental and family religiosity with adolescent drug use behavior. Analysis was based on self-reported responses to a questionnaire administered to 1,036 undergraduate college students at Brigham Young University of which 99.1% are members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (LDS). About 86% reported having never used drugs. The most commonly reported reasons for abstention from drugs were that drug use violates the participants' religious beliefs and their personal moral code. In contrast, concern about legal consequences, harming family reputation, and avoiding dishonest behavior were among the least common reasons for abstaining from drugs. Children of parents who were neutral, versus critical, about religion - or who considered religion of minor importance - were more likely to have a history of drug use. Protective factors against drug behavior included also parental positions of responsibility in the church and frequent family discussions involving religion and Christian conduct. The mother's view of religion was a stronger indicator of previous drug use behavior than either the father's view of religion, positions of church responsibility held by the parents, or arguments about religious teachings with parents. Discussion on topics of Christian conduct was a stronger indicator of previous drug use behavior than were either church attendance or discussions on topics of religious doctrine. [Source: SC]

Smithline, Catherine Williams. 2001. “Spirituality as a Protective Factor against Adolescent Substance Abuse.” Ph.D. Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology - Berkeley/Alameda.
Abstract: In order to improve the prevention of adolescent substance abuse problems, spirituality as a protective factor against adolescent substance abuse was investigated. Spirituality was defined as (a) having a sense of existential well being, (b) being connected to and promoting the well being of one's community and oneself, and (c) having a personal and transcendent relationship with the life-giving force, a higher power, or some concept of God. It was hypothesized that (a) there would be a negative relationship between adolescents spirituality and substance abuse and (b) that spirituality during adolescence is in a period of change. The participants were 196 adolescents recruited from a non-denomination private high school (mean age = 15.4 years, sd = 1.40) and a Catholic high school (mean age = 16.4 years, sd = 0.56), in a suburban county of a major Western city. Due to the lack of an adolescent measure of spirituality, an adolescent focus group was conducted about their spiritual beliefs, and this information was used to construct the Smithline Spirituality Inventory for Teen [SSIT]. The participants completed the SSIT along with the Human Spirituality Scale [HSS] (Wheat, 1991), the Religious Attitudes and Practices Inventory (D'Onofrio, Murrelle, McCullough, Landis, & Eaves, in press), and the Personal Experience Screening Questionnaire (Winters, 1991). The findings demonstrated several relationships between adolescent spirituality and substance use patterns, which appeared to be influenced by the religiosity of the adolescent and the developmental maturation of the adolescent. A positive relationship between spirituality and substance abuse was evidenced for non-religious adolescents, suggesting that adolescents without a religious background may seek spiritual experiences through alcohol and other drug use. In addition, spirituality was found to be positively related to age of first use, and for religious adolescents to the age when they first began using regularly. In addition, a developmental explanation for these relationships was provided that considered how adolescent spiritual beliefs change over time. The usefulness of the SSIT and the HSS as measures of adolescent spirituality was explored, and directions for future research were made. [Source: DA]

Sung Joon, Jang and Byron R. Johnson. 2001. “Neighborhood Disorder, Individual Religiosity and Adolescent Use of Illicit Drugs: A Test.” Criminology vol. 39, pp. 109-143.
Abstract: Hypothesizes about the relationship among neighborhood disorder, individual religiosity and adolescent use of illicit drugs. Effects of religiosity on illicit drug use; Neighborhood disorder and drug use; Disorder and religiosity; Adolescent development, religiosity and drug use. [Source: AS]

Sutherland, I. and J. P. Shepherd. 2001. “Social Dimensions of Adolescent Substance Use.” Addiction vol. 96, pp. 445-458.
Abstract: Objectives. The aim of this study was to explore in detail the relationship between various social aspects of young people's lives and substance use and differences in the degree of influence exerted by the different social factors as a function of age. Design, setting, participants. The study was a survey of pupils aged 11-16 in a stratified sample of five English schools. Data from 4516 participants were obtained in relation to their cigarette, alcohol and illicit drug use and their contact with the police, perceived academic achievements and future expectations, religious beliefs, family structure, the importance of family versus peer opinions and suspension from school. Measures. Cumulative, age-specific preferences of substance misuse were compared. Logistic regression was used to rank the various risk factors. Results. Substantial differences were found between substance users and non-users and the various risk factors being examined. For example, of those who had only been in trouble with the police, 18.8% used illegal drugs compared with 1.6% of those who had not had a police contact and who had no other risk factors. Many of these relationships were age-sensitive. For instance, the negative relationship between belief in God and illicit drug use became stronger as age increased (non-believers: y = 8.1886x -9.16 R-2 = 0.9484; believers: y = 5.1514x -8.08 R-2 = 0.9247). These results suggest that, within this sample of English adolescents, there was a strong relationship between substance use and the social factors examined. Although there were differences depending upon whether cigarette, alcohol or illicit drug use was being modelled, logistic regression indicated that the social factors could be ranked in the following order of importance: concurrent use of the second and third substances, having been in trouble with the police, perceived poor academic performance and low future academic expectations, a lack of religious belief, coming from a non- intact family, favouring peer over family opinion and having been suspended from school. Many of these relationships were age-sensitive with substance use peaking at age 15. Conclusion. The models and relationships presented in this paper show that a constellation of behaviours are related to adolescent substance use. Also demonstrated is that behaviours cannot be considered in isolation, but need to be examined from an holistic or biopsychosocial standpoint. These relationships are complex and future research should consider not only causality of adolescent substance use, but also of the aetiology of the satellite behaviours. [Source: SC]

Vakalahi, H. F. 2001. “Adolescent Substance Use and Family-Based Risk and Protective Factors: A Literature Review.” Journal of Drug Education vol. 31, pp. 29-46.
Abstract: Adolescent substance use has become a serious concern nationwide. Although there are many ways of viewing adolescent substance use, family influence has been established as one of the strongest sources of risk and protection. A review of the literature indicated relevant theories for understanding adolescent substance use and specific family-based variables influencing adolescent substance use. Tn general, there seems to be a relationship between adolescent substance use and family-based risk and protective factors. Relevant theories identified in the literature review include family systems theory social cognitive theory, social control theory, and strain theory. Specific family-based risk and protective factors include family relationships such as with siblings and parents and family characteristics such as ethnicity and religious backgrounds. Future implications for research and prevention/intervention in relation to family-based risk and protective factors are discussed. [Source: SC]

Benda, B. B. and R. F. Corwyn. 2000. “A Theoretical Model of Religiosity and Drug Use with Reciprocal Relationships: A Test Using Structural Equation Modeling.” Journal of Social Service Research vol. 26, pp. 43-67.
Abstract: This study of 1093 adolescents from 6 public high schools was designed to test a hypothesized model formulated by theoretical elaboration of control theory with elements from social learning theory using structural equation modeling procedures. The primary purpose was to establish that religion is relevant to illicit drug use when its direct, indirect and reciprocal. effects are tested within a more complete system of relationships than found in existing studies. Most aspects of the model were supported by data and religion had direct inverse effects on illegal drug use for all adolescents studied. However, the feedback effects of drug use on religion were significant only among younger adolescents and females. Other age and gender differences were observed when the hypothesized model was tested with structural equation modeling procedures. The implications of these findings were discussed in regard to future conceptual work and intervention. [Source: SC]

Dick, D. M., J. K. Johnson, R. J. Viken, and R. J. Rose. 2000. “Testing between-Family Associations in within-Family Comparisons.” Psychological Science vol. 11, pp. 409-413.
Abstract: Using behaviourally discordant siblings to test for gene- behavior associations is a common tool in molecular genetics, because the within-family contrast offers a research design that avoids confounds inevitable in all between-family comparisons of unrelated individuals. We propose a similar strategy to assess the behaviour-behaviour associations on which much of psychological science is built. Between-family correlations of personality test scores (e.g., sensation seeking) and behavioural outcomes (e.g., substance use) may be mediated by variables that differ between families (e.g., social class or religiosity) and correlate with both personality and outcome. Contrasting twin and nontwin siblings who were highly discordant for behavioral correlates of substance use, we tested whether between-family behavioral correlations replicated within families. Some, but not all, did. Within-family analysis of behaviorally discordant siblings may find wide application in efforts to clarify the meaning of correlational research data. [Source: SC]

Figlio, David and Jens Ludwig. 2000. “Sex, Drugs, and Catholic Schools: Private Schooling and Non-Market Adolescent Behaviors.” Columbia University.

Gomes, J. L. G. and M. Munoz-Rivas. 2000. “Psychological Risk and Protection Factors for Drug Use by Adolescents.” Psicologia Conductual vol. 8, pp. 249-269.
Abstract: The main objective of this study was to analyze the influence and the differential weight of certain psychological variables (selfconcept and depression, other characteristics of personality and of antisocial behavior and ethical-moral values) in drug use by adolescents. A sample of 1.570 adolescents of both sexes was used (54.4% men and 45.6% women) belonging to the Autonomous Community of Madrid. The results showed that several substances of use studied were empirically grouped into three factors called: "legal drugs" "illegal drugs" and "medical drugs". In turn, several stepwise regression analysis were carried out with each one of the three factors and it was pointed out that the main psychological risk factors to explain the use of legal drugs were self-esteem, presence of antisocial behaviors and desinhibition; on the contrary the most important protection factors were the presence of positive selfconcept, a high level of sincerity and religious practice. Risk and protection factors for illegal and medical drugs were also analyzed. These data are taken into account when designing a prevention program for drug use. [Source: SC]

Grunbaum, J. A., S. Tortolero, N. Weller, and P. Gingiss. 2000. “Cultural, Social, and Intrapersonal Factors Associated with Substance Use among Alternative High School Students.” Addictive Behaviors vol. 25, pp. 145-151.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to identify cultural, social, and intrapersonal factors associated with tobacco, alcohol, and illicit drug use among students attending dropout prevention/recovery high schools, Four mutually exclusive categories of substance use were used as outcome measures, and religiosity, educational achievement, educational aspiration, family caring, others caring, self-esteem, optimism, coping, depression, loneliness, and self-efficacy were used as predictor variables. In the final multivariate model more family caring and loneliness were inversely associated with marijuana use; young age, more family caring, less coping ability, church attendance, and low educational aspirations were significantly associated with cocaine use. This study demonstrates the importance of health education and health promotion programs for students attending alternative high schools which include prevention of initiation, as well as treatment. [Source: SC]

Johnson, Byron R. 2000. A Better Kind of High : How Religious Commitment Reduces Drug Use among Poor Urban Teens. Pennsylvania: CRRUCS.

Miller, L., M. Davies, and S. Greenwald. 2000. “Religiosity and Substance Use and Abuse among Adolescents in the National Comorbidity Survey.” Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry vol. 39, pp. 1190-1197.
Abstract: Objective: To replicate previous findings among adults of an inverse association between religiosity and substance use among a nationally representative sample of adolescents. Method: Subjects were 676 (328 female and 348 male) adolescents in the National Comorbidity Survey who were assessed for substance use and abuse with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Religiosity was assessed through affiliation with religious denomination and through response to 7 questions concerning belief and practice. Results: Confirmatory factor analyses replicated in adolescents the 2 religiosity factors of personal devotion and personal conservatism previously identified by Kendler among adults, although the 2 factors were more highly correlated in adolescents than in adults. Personal devotion (a personal relationship with the Divine) and affiliation with more fundamentalist religious denominations were inversely associated with substance use and substance dependence or abuse across a range of substances (alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, or any contraband drug). Personal conservatism (a personal commitment to teaching and living according to creed) was inversely associated with use of alcohol only. Conclusion: Low levels of religiosity may be associated with adolescent onset of substance use and abuse. [Source: SC]

Rivers, Monica Corbitt. 2000. “Resisting Risk: The Protective Roles of Family Environment and Personal Resilience among African-American Adolescent Girls Living in Low-Income Neighborhoods.” Ph.D. Thesis, Vanderbilt University.
Abstract: Personal resilience was examined as a mediator of the influence of specific family environment variables (cohesion, control, achievement-orientation, moral-religious emphasis, and conflict) on selected developmental outcomes (academic achievement, alcohol and tobacco use, sexual behavior, and delinquent behavior) in African-American early adolescent girls. The sample included 106 10 to 12 year old African-American girls living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. Findings provided no evidence of a direct effect of family environment on developmental outcomes; therefore, the hypothesized mediational model could not be tested. Additional analyses, however, revealed significant direct effects of personal resilience on two developmental outcomes under investigation, alcohol and tobacco use and delinquent behavior. Possible explanations for the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. [Source: DA]

Rotheram-Borus, M. J. 2000. “Expanding the Range of Interventions to Reduce HIV among Adolescents.” AIDS vol. 14, pp. S33-S40.
Abstract: Objective: Structural interventions are identified to reduce adolescents' HIV risk. Method: The goals, strategies, approaches, and delivery sites of adolescent HIV prevention programs are reviewed. Results: In addition to reducing sexual activity and substance use, HIV prevention programs may also reduce adolescents' HIV risk by: decreasing poverty; ensuring access to HIV testing, healthcare, general social skills training, and employment opportunities; and requiring community service for students. Adolescent HIV prevention programs do not currently utilize diverse modalities (computers, videotapes, television, telephone groups, computerized telephones) or sites (parents' workplaces, religious organizations, self-help networks, primary healthcare clinics) for delivering interventions. Diversifying current approaches to HIV prevention include: economic development programs; mandating delivery of programs at key developmental milestones (e.g, childbirth, marriage) and settings (school-based clinics, condom availability programs); securing changes in legislative and funding policies through ballot initiatives or lawsuits; and privatizing prevention activities. Conclusions: To implement structural HIV interventions for adolescents requires researchers to shift their community norms regarding the value of innovation, adopt designs other than randomized controlled trials, expand their theoretical models, and adopt strategies used by lawyers, private enterprise, and lobbyists. [Source: SC]

Vakalahi, H. F., R. S. Harrison, and F. V. Janzen. 2000. “The Influence of Family-Based Risk and Protective Factors on Adolescent Substance Use.” Journal of Family Social Work vol. 4, pp. 21-34.
Abstract: The influence of family-based risk and protective factors on adolescent substance use was examined in this study. Parental education level, ethnic background, religious affiliation, sibling substance use, family conflict, and family involvement were the specific risk and protective factors examined. Five thousand and nine adolescents in the state of Utah were randomly sampled and completed the survey. Responses of 4,983 adolescents were included in the data analysis. High parental education level, religiously affiliated, and family involvement are protective factors for adolescent substance use. Ethnic minority background, sibling substance use, and family conflict are risk factors for adolescent substance use. Future implications for intervention and research in relation to family-based risk and protective factors are discussed. [Source: CI]

Brunswick, Ann F. 1999. “Structural Strain: An Ecological Paradigm for Studying African American Drug Use.” Drugs and Society vol. 14, pp. 5-19.
Abstract: Suggests that drug involvement differences in the African American community are best explained by heterogeneity in degrees of success in & attachment to mainstream social institutions (family, church, schools, workplaces). These considerations predominate in structural strain theory. Here, an ecological model is used to operationalize the theory & posit three different interlinking levels of social influence on individual drug use behavior: social structural, institutional, & interpersonal networks (representing macro-, exo-, & microsystem, respectively). Findings are presented from a 25-year study conducted with one community-representative cohort of African American youth in Harlem, New York City, that supports the importance of the structural strain premise in explaining African American drug use patterns. An example of study measures, arrayed according to the ecological paradigm, is provided, & its utility is demonstrated in enumerating sources of error that have led to incomplete & sometimes contradictory findings regarding African American drug use. [Source: SA]

D'Onofrio, B. M., L. Murrelle, L. J. Eaves, M. E. McCullough, J. L. Landis, and H. H. Maes. 1999. “Adolescent Religiousness and Its Influence on Substance Use: Preliminary Findings from the Mid-Atlantic School Age Twin Study.” Twin Research vol. 2, pp. 156-168.
Abstract: Research has consistently shown that religiousness is associated with lower levels of alcohol and drug use, but little is known about the nature of adolescent religiousness or the mechanisms through which it influences problem behavior in this age group. This paper presents preliminary results from the Mid-Atlantic School Age Twin Study, a prospective, population-based study of 6-18-year-old twins and their mothers. Factor analysis of a scale developed to characterize adolescent religiousness, the Religious Attitudes and Practices Inventory (RAPI), revealed three factors: theism, religious/spiritual practices, and peer religiousness. Twin correlations and univariate behavior-genetic models for these factors and a measure of belief that drug use is sinful reveal in 357 twin pairs that common environmental factors significantly influence these traits, but a minor influence of genetic factors could not be discounted. Correlations between the multiple factors of adolescent religiousness and substance use, comorbid problem behavior, mood disorders, and selected risk factors for substance involvement are also presented. Structural equation modeling illustrates that specific religious beliefs about the sinfulness of drugs and level of peer religiousness mediate the relationship between theistic beliefs and religious/spiritual practices on substance use. Limitations and future analyses are discussed. [Source: ML]

Forthun, L., N. Bell, and C. Peek. 1999. “Religiosity, Sensation Seeking, and Alcohol/Drug Use in Denominational and Gender Contexts.” Journal of Drug Issues vol. 29, pp. 75-90.
Abstract: A study was conducted to examine religiosity, sensation- seeking, and alcohol/drug use in denominational and gender contexts. Data were gathered from a sample of 526 university students anonymously completed an assessment packet. The results failed to indicate support for arousal theory predictions or for moderating effects of denominational and gender contexts. Religiosity, sensation seeking, denominational affiliation, and gender were found to be relatively independent predictors of substance use, and their importance was found to vary according to the type of substance and specific indicator of use. [Source: SS]

Galaif, E. R. and M. D. Newcomb. 1999. “Predictors of Polydrug Use among Four Ethnic Groups: A 12-Year Longitudinal Study.” Addictive Behaviors vol. 24, pp. 607-631.
Abstract: We examined adolescent risk and protective constructs associated with adult polydrug use among four ethnic groups. Both mean and relational differences among the constructs were examined by ethnic group. Teenage polydrug use was a significant predictor of adult polydrug use for Caucasians, African-Americans, and Latinos. Although this relationship was not evident for Asians, teenage alcohol use increased adult cigarette use, and early religiosity increased adult alcohol use. Early parental support/bonding predicted less adult Polydrug Use for Caucasians. For Latinos, general social conformity and low liberalism decreased cigarette use as an adult. In general, the implications of the results are that prevention strategies should emphasize the reduction of teenage drug use to decrease adult polydrug use among Caucasians, Latinos, and African-Americans. Future research should examine other possible risk and protective conditions related to adult polydrug use among diverse populations. [Source: SC]

Haskin, Jacqueline Moreau. 1999. “Personality and Family Relationship Correlates of Drug Abstention in Adolescents.” Ph.D. Thesis, Wayne State University.
Abstract: Considerable research has been devoted to studying the causes and correlates of drug use and abuse among adolescents. This literature has revealed that occasional use signifies developmentally appropriate experimentation, while the extreme behaviors of abuse and abstention are signs of underlying emotional problems. Abstention has not been directly researched. Information on abstention has been a byproduct of the use/abuse literature. Personality and family relationship correlates of drug abstention were investigated in a sample of 292 seniors from a Midwestern, middle-class suburban high school. Using the level of substance involvement as a predictor of adjustment, abstainers, user/experimenters, and abusers were compared on personality and family relationship variables. Levels of adjustment were evaluated in terms of the personality characteristics of novelty-seeking, harm avoidance, and reward dependence and the level of relationship problems with the father independent of the adolescent/mother relationship. Additional information was gathered on demographic and background factors. The primary hypothesis that abstention is related to a personality profile high in reward dependence and harm avoidance, and low in novelty seeking behaviors was partially supported. A strong relationship between abstention and a personality low in novelty seeking behaviors was found. The secondary hypothesis that abstention is related to low levels of relationship problems with the father independent of the adolescent/maternal relationship was not supported. The results showed that differences in perceived conflict with parents are not a significant influence on substance abuse level. A strong relationship between substance use level and grade point average and religiosity was found. Abstainers achieved significantly higher grade point averages than user/experimenters and abusers. Abstainers reported attending religious activities or services significantly more frequently than the other groups, and abstainers were significantly more likely to consider religion extremely important in their lives than user/experimenters and abusers. Implications for incorporating these findings into programs aimed at preventing drug abuse were presented. [Source: DA]

Long, Welsey and Courtney Vaughn. 1999. “"I've Had Too Much Done to My Heart": The Dilemma of Addiction and Recovery as Seen through Seven Youngsters' Lives.” Journal of Drug Education vol. 29, pp. 309-322.
Abstract: Aware of the dearth of in-depth studies on recovering adolescent addict alcoholics, we conducted a year-long qualitative study of seven formerly-addicted youth committed to recovery. The research question was: how do addicted youth become and remain sober? Bending to social stress, including racism and ethnic prejudice, three participants relapsed. However, personal commitment augmented by familial, community, spiritual, and educational support encouraged four to remain sober. Learning from both those who failed and succeeded, the theoretical concepts of surrender, social stress, and resiliency helped to interpret the participants' patterns of response and better understand adolescent recovery. Copyright 1999, Baywood Publishing Company, Inc. [Source: EA]

Oetting, E. R. 1999. “Primary Socialization Theory. Developmental Stages, Spirituality, Government Institutions, Sensation Seeking, and Theoretical Implications. V.” Substance Use & Misuse vol. 34, pp. 947-982.
Abstract: This fifth and final paper in the series on primary socialization theory includes discussion of issues raised by participants in a forum on the theory. The theory states that drug use and deviant behaviors occur as an outcome of bonding with primary socialization sources and the transmission of norms through those sources. Personal traits and secondary socialization sources influence drug use and deviance indirectly and! through their effects on the primary socialization process. Developmentally, the only primary socialization source for the preschool child is the family. In early grade school years, the primary socialization sources are the family and school. Peer clusters emerge as a primary socialization source later, with their greatest effect occurring during adolescence. Adults have varied primary socialization patterns. Levels of ego development among adults may alter the primary socialization process. Spirituality is defined, and its influence on drug use is discussed. Government institutions, such as the criminal justice system, welfare, and child protective services, are now included among secondary socialization sources; The fact that the general theory of primary socialization is not ethnocentric or temporocentric is discussed. Implications of the: theory for understanding existing or potential risk and protective factors for deviance, and for improving the effectiveness of prevention and treatment are discussed. [Source: SC]

Pullen, L., M. A. Modrcin Talbott, W. R. West, and R. Muenchen. 1999. “Spiritual High Vs High on Spirits: Is Religiosity Related to Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Abuse?” Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing vol. 6, pp. 3-8.
Abstract: This study investigated relationships between alcohol and drug abuse by adolescents and frequency of religious service attendance in the south-east United States. Data obtained from surveys of 217 adolescents, age 12-19 years, was analysed. The adolescents included participants from both clinical and non-clinical settings. Results from both groups showed that, as attendance at religious services increased, alcohol and drug abuse decreased. Spirituality is a concept that warrants further study to determine if its inclusion in treatment programs could enhance recovery or drastically reduce recidivism. [Source: CI]

Pullen, L., M. A. Modrcin-Talbott, W. R. West, and R. Muenchen. 1999. “Spiritual High Vs High on Spirits: Is Religiosity Related to Adolescent Alcohol and Drug Abuse?” Journal of Psychiatric & Mental Health Nursing vol. 6, pp. 3-8.
Abstract: This study investigated relationships between alcohol and drug abuse by adolescents and frequency of religious service attendance in the south-east United States. Data obtained from surveys of 217 adolescents, age 12-19 years, was analysed. The adolescents included participants from both clinical and non-clinical settings. Results from both groups showed that, as attendance at religious services increased, alcohol and drug abuse decreased. Spirituality is a concept that warrants further study to determine if its inclusion in treatment programs could enhance recovery or drastically reduce recidivism. [Source: CI]

Rounds-Bryant, J. L., P. L. Kristiansen, and R. L. Hubbard. 1999. “Drug Abuse Treatment Outcome Study of Adolescents: A Comparison of Client Characteristics and Pretreatment Behaviors in Three Treatment Modalities.” American Journal of Drug & Alcohol Abuse vol. 25, pp. 573-591.
Abstract: OBJECTIVES: The present study presents background and pretreatment characteristics of adolescent substance abuse treatment clients, and it provides a mechanism for describing perhaps the largest research sample of adolescents who were in drug treatment in this decade. METHODS: The sample was 3382 subjects who presented for treatment from 1993 to 1995 in 37 programs in Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania: Miami, Florida; Minneapolis, Minnesota; Chicago, Illinois; Portland, Maine; and New York City, New York. Informed permission for the youth to participate was obtained from the subject's custodial parent/guardian, and both the youth and the youth's parents or guardians provided informed assent if they agreed to participate as subjects. Adolescents then were interviewed privately and confidentially by a trained professional interviewer who was independent of the treatment programs. The interviews queried subjects about their background, including education and employment; physical and mental health; use of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs; sexual experiences; legal problems: religious beliefs; and treatment experience. RESULTS: The long-term residential treatment modality was the least gender balanced of the modalities and had the most African-American and Hispanic clients. This modality was distinguished by the proportion of clients who were referred to treatment by the juvenile or criminal justice system. Compared with other clients in other modalities, short-term inpatient clients were more likely to be female and white. Inpatient clients also reported more indicators of psychiatric impairment. Outpatient clients were slightly younger than clients in the other modalities, and more of them were attending school at the time of admission to treatment. Outpatient clients had the least criminally involved lifestyles, their rates of (regular daily or weekly) drug use were also the lowest of the three modalities for all drugs assessed, and they had the least drug treatment experience. CONCLUSIONS: These results merit several recommendations. One is the need for more community-based adolescent substance abuse treatment programs. An additional recommendation is for more substance abuse treatment programs in facilities that serve incarcerated youth. Finally, and perhaps most critically, it is recommended that programs be designed to address such specialized issues as comorbid substance abuse and psychiatric problems, family dysfunction, physical and sexual abuse, gender and ethnic differences, and academic performance. [Source: ML]

Schmit, Harvey Michael. 1999. “The Influence of Home, Friends, School and Church on the Development of Values and Behavior in Adolescence among Lutheran School Students.” Thesis, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor.
Abstract: The role of four supportive contexts in predicting reported values and problem behavior among adolescents in Lutheran schools was investigated. The sample of students in Lutheran schools (N = 7858) was selected from Search Institute's 1990-94 national research program. Predictors included gender, ethnicity, grade and level of parent education, as well as four contextual variables. These included: (1) care and support in the home context, (2) modeling in the friend context, (3) support and encouragement from teachers in the school context, and (4) involvement in the church context. Dependent variables included values (defined as concern for others and their welfare), and problem behaviors involving the use of soft drugs, engaging in violence, and the use of hard drugs. All constructs were measured using self report items on a questionnaire. Regression analysis indicated that involvement and support in the four contexts mediated the effects of the demographic variables on values and problem behavior. The friend context had the strongest and most positive relation with the outcomes, with less problem behavior and more positive values related to perceptions of a positive friend context. Cross product interaction terms in the regression equations revealed that there were some interactions between contexts of the home or church context was weak when the friend context was stronger. Results are discussed in terms of current theory, particularly regarding the role of demographic variables, the function of supportive contexts, and implications for Lutheran schools. [Source: PI]

Smiley, Rosalie. 1999. “A Study of the Factors Influencing the Use of Drugs and Alcohol by African-American Adolescent Females.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
Abstract: Adolescents are currently using licit and illicit drugs at an increasing rate and are beginning at a younger age. Adolescents are also often using multiple drugs simultaneously. Although a number of studies have addressed adolescent substance abuse and its consequences, there is a paucity of research that has investigated the substance usage of African-American teenaged women. This study of the adolescent experiences of fifty-one African-American women in recovery investigated five general areas: (1) What factors contributed to the respondents' ongoing drug and alcohol use during adolescence? (2) What could have prevented or inhibited their ongoing drug and alcohol use when they were teens? (3) What led the respondents to enter treatment? What aspects of treatment were most helpful? Least helpful? (4) What could prevent African American adolescent females from initiating drug and alcohol use? From becoming involved in ongoing drug and alcohol use? (5) What would be most effective in getting African-American adolescent females to enter treatment? What services should be provided to them? The non-randomly selected respondents were interviewed using an instrument containing open- and closed-ended items, developed by the researcher. The findings from this study present a complex picture of the life experiences of these respondents. The women interviewed identified a number of factors as contributing to their initial and ongoing drug and alcohol use, including families' drug and alcohol use; peers' use of drugs and alcohol; lack of connection to social institutions, especially the church; and the availability and accessibility of drug and alcohol in their homes, school and communities. Basing their recommendations on what they perceived to be the unique vulnerabilities of African American adolescent females, respondents suggested various actions that families, schools, and communities could take to deter adolescent substance involvement. [Source: DA]

Trusty, Jerry and Richard E. Watts. 1999. “Relationship of High School Seniors' Religious Perceptions and Behavior to Educational, Career, and Leisure Variables.” Counseling and Values vol. 44, pp. 30-39.
Abstract: This study used data from a national sample of 12,992 US high school seniors to investigate the relationship of religious perceptions and behavior to several school, career, and leisure variables. Seniors' positive perceptions of religion and frequent attendance at religious services were related to positive parental involvement, positive school attitudes and behaviors, and infrequent problem behaviors. Parental involvement mediated the effects of religious perceptions and behavior on adolescents, academic attitudes and drug use. However, a large portion of the effects of religious perceptions and behavior was independent of parental involvement. Implications for counselors and educators are provided. [Source: PI]

Vakalahi, Halaevalu F. 1999. “Adolescent Substance Use in Utah: The Influence of Family-Based Risk and Protective Factors.” Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Utah.
Abstract: This study examined the influence of family-based risk and protective factors on adolescent substance use. Adolescents were classified as nonusers, experimenters, and users. Experimenters were examined only in relation to adolescent tobacco, alcohol, and marijuana use. In examining other drugs, users included those who may be experimenting with substances, as well as those who may be using substances regularly. Based on a theory-driven framework and empirical studies, research questions focused on the influence of family-related variables on adolescent substance use. These variables included parental education level, ethnic background, religious affiliation, sibling substance use, family conflict, and family involvement. The sample consisted of 5,009 adolescents randomly surveyed in the state of Utah. Responses of 4,983 adolescents met the criteria for inclusion; thus, they were included in the data analysis. Overall, this study supported prior research, indicating that adolescent substance use is influenced by family-based variables. Family attributes and relationships served as risk or protective factors. Findings suggest that high parental education level, nonminority background, being religiously affiliated, and family involvement are protective factors for adolescent substance use. On the other hand, low parental education level, minority background, being nonreligiously affiliated, sibling substance use, and family conflict are risk factors for adolescent substance use. Whites and Asian/Pacific Islanders reported the highest percentage in nonuse of tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs, whereas Whites, Asian/Pacific Islanders, and American Indians reported the highest percentage in nonuse of marijuana. Moreover, LDS (Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints) adolescents reported the highest percentage of nonuse of all substances. Possible explanations are offered, and implications for future research and practice are suggested. Future research is recommended, especially in relation to ethnic minority-related protective factors. Moreover, this study underscores the importance of research using the risk-focused model as a framework for addressing and understanding adolescent substance use. [Source: PI]

Vaughn, C. and W. Long. 1999. “Surrender to Win: How Adolescent Drug and Alcohol Users Change Their Lives.” Adolescence vol. 34, pp. 9-24.
Abstract: Adolescent drug and alcohol addiction is a serious problem in the United States. However, some addicted adolescents do quit drinking and using drugs. This paper offers a phenomenological analysis of seven young adults who managed to surrender their addictions and, for anywhere from five to fifteen years, construct sober identities. The participants came from highly dysfunctional homes, began substance use as children, and were polydrug users. A series of catastrophic life events led them to Alcoholics Anonymous, where they were exposed to self-reflective prayer, a cadre of recovering adolescents and, in particular, adults who offered detached nurturing. This provided the support they needed to confront their addictions through the Twelve Steps of Alcoholics Anonymous. [Source: ML]

Westermeyer, J. 1999. “The Role of Cultural and Social Factors in the Cause of Addictive Disorders.” Psychiatric Clinics of North America vol. 22, pp. 253-273.
Abstract: For many centuries, generations of young people were protected from the early onset of addictive disorders. Although addiction to drugs and alcohol had been well known for centuries, widespread addiction has occurred only in recent centuries. Because the human gene pool or human biochemistry did not likely change suddenly to produce this result, social and cultural factors likely have produced widespread addiction. From another perspective, the sociocultural factors that once protected our societies against widespread addiction may have become weakened or inoperative. Our social institutions--our families, schools, religions, neighborhoods, and governments--no longer protect us and our young from addiction as they once did. The failure of traditional social institutions to protect us from addiction does not mean that we must seek drug panaceas only in nonsocietal venues, such as medications and psychotherapies. Rather, we should look to those elements of our institutions that have failed us and seek to bolster them. A gradually evolving body of literature on this topic demonstrates that institutional changes can serve to reduce widespread addiction among us. Moreover, these changes can be implemented at many levels: within our families, schools, friendship groups, workplaces, churches, neighborhoods, and legislatures. [Source: ML]

Yarnold, Barbara M. 1999. “Cocaine Use among Miami's Public School Students, 1992: Religion Versus Peers and Availability.” Journal of Health and Social Policy vol. 11, pp. 69-84.
Abstract: Longitudinal (1989-1992) survey data (N = 1,690 respondents in 1992) are drawn on to examine the use of cocaine by 507 adolescents in Dade County, FL, public schools. Statistically significant factors that tend to increase the probability of cocaine use by adolescents include having peers who use cocaine, being white, & having ready access to the substance. Although not statistically significant, adolescents were more likely to use cocaine if they knew of the risks associated with cocaine use. Hence, the typical user may be a risk-taker, enjoying the dangers involved with cocaine use. The only statistically significant variable that inhibits these adolescents' use of cocaine is having religion as an important part of their lives. [Source: SA]

Zacharioudakis, Manos Antonis. 1999. “Problem Behaviors of Greek-American Adolescents: The Relationship of Ethnic Identification to Risks and Protective Factors.” Ph.D. Thesis, St. John's University (New York).
Abstract:In a cross-sectional study of 257 Greek-American (GA) adolescents from across the US (ages 16-19, 72% female, 93% USA born) the incidence and psychosocial corrlates of problem behaviors (PB) (i.e. smoking, drinking, marijuana, heavy drugs, sexual intercourse, deviant behaviors) were explored. Jessor and Jessor's Problem Behavior Theory's (PBT) generalizability in this population were examined. Differences in PB incidence, risks, and predictors, explored through correlational and multiple regression analyses, across GA ethnic identification, gender, and school status (i.e. high school-college) were found. The findings generally supported PBT. Strong positive intercorrelations among all PB, all (but one) positive intercorrelations among prosocial behavior, and all negative correlations of PB with prosocial behavior, and all negative correlations of PB with prosocial behaviors were documented, as hypothesized. The "one latent factor of general deviance" hypothesis found support for males, but not for females or the total sample. Higher Greek-identified youth showed higher drinking, smoking, and deviance, and lower marijuana/drug use and sexual experience scores, compared to lower Greek-identified youth, but these differences were due to SES differences and disappeared when SES factors were partialled out. Family cohesiveness showed protective main effects for most PB but no interaction with ethnicity effects. Family adaptability failed to show any significant effects. Significant gender differences were found: males showed higher marijuana, alcohol use, deviance scores, and sexual promiscuity and less diet/laxative pill use that females (no smoking or heavier drug use gender differences were found). Females showe higher levels of religiosity, stressful events and psychopathology (i.e. anxiety and general symptomatology, but not depression). College students showed higher scores for most PB (except heavy drugs or deviance). Youth from non-intact parental marriages showed significantly higher levels of all PB while intact family incidence showed a positive correlation to Greek ethnic identity. In predicting the total sample's PBindex, in decreasing order, friends' regular engagement In smoking/drinking/marjuana use/sex, time going to bed on weekends, stressful life events, relative parent-friend influence, non-acceptance of premarital sex by youth, intolerance of deviance, parental approval of PB, and age, were the significant predictors. Significant differences in predictors were found among ethnic, gender, and college-status subgroups (e.g. a high contribution of PBT "personality" variables only for high Greek identifiers, of family cohesion for females, and of "perceived environment" factors--i.e. friends models and parental controls--for males). [Source: DA]

Bahr, Stephen J., Suzanne L. Maughan, Anastasios C. Marcos, and Bingdao Li. 1998. “Family, Religiosity, and the Risk of Adolescent Drug Use.” Journal of Marriage and the Family vol. 60, pp. 979-992.
Abstract: With questionnaire data from a random sample of 13,250 adolescents, the authors used structural equation modeling to estimate how mother-adolescent bonding, father-adolescent bonding, parental monitoring, family aggression, family drug problems, and religiosity were associated with adolescent use of alcohol, marijuana, and amphetamines and depressants. Mother-adolescent bonding and family drug problems had modest, indirect effects on the likelihood of adolescent drug use. Father-adolescent bonding, parental monitoring, and family aggression had relatively weak effects on adolescent drug use. Students who were religious tended not to use drugs or to have close friends who use drugs. The influence of these risk factors was similar for both females and males and for all 3 types of drugs. [Source: PI]

Chard -Wierschem, Deborah Jo. 1998. “In Pursuit of the "True" Relationship: A Longitudinal Study of the Effects of Religiosity on Delinquency and Substance Abuse.” Ph.D. Thesis, State University of New York At Albany.
Abstract: The long held notion that religious beliefs and practices deter crime and deviance has been embraced by scholars as well as society in general. Yet, studies examining the relationship between religion and deviance have yielded little insight. Past research on the religiosity-delinquency relationship has been severely criticized for lack of theory, poor operationalization of religious beliefs and behavior, inadequate statistical analyses and in general, has been frustrated by many contradictory findings. This study addresses these criticisms by placing the religion-delinquency relationship within the framework of an elaborated social control theory and proposes to test this theory using longitudinal data from the Rochester Youth Development Study. Results from the longitudinal analysis suggest that religiosity does indeed have an effect on both delinquency and drug use: religious youth are less likely to engage in delinquency or drug use than non- religious or less religious youth. However, most of the effect of religiosity on delinquency and substance use is indirect through other model variables, in particular, through conventional values, delinquent peers and delinquent values. These relationships were fairly consistent across three different time periods, suggesting that although the quantity or quality of religiosity may change as a youth matures, the basic manner in which religiosity operates in deterring delinquent behavior remains relatively consistent. Parent religiosity was also found to be strongly related to youth religiosity and to increased educational commitment. The main theoretical model was also tested for three denominational categories of youth (Catholic, Protestant and Non-Denominational Christian) and for a sample of youth who said they did not believe in a particular religion. Although sample sizes were relatively small, differences in the way in which religiosity did (or did not) effect delinquency and substance use were observed. Finally, reciprocal relationships between youth religiosity, delinquent peers, delinquent values and delinquency were also explored. More evidence exists to indicate that youth religiosity decreases delinquency and substance use rather than the reverse. Policy implications and suggestions for further research are also discussed. [Source: DA]

Conley, O. Stephen. 1998. “Early Sexual Onset: A Study of the Relationship between Social and Psychological Factors in the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health.” Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to utilize the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Wave I) to develop models to predict the onset of sexual intercourse before the age of 16, the experience of forced sexual intercourse for females and the choice to have multiple sexual partners with both genders. One cross-sectional wave of the public use dataset from this large nationally representative study (Add Health) was analyzed. Social and psychological variables were tested through logistic regressions and descriptive statistics. Findings demonstrated that 41.5% of male adolescents and 37.3% of female adolescents in the sample had experienced sexual intercourse. More than half of the nonvirgin subjects (53.1%) reported beginning sexual intercourse by the age of 16. Initial predictive models found that black males who report having trouble with teachers ($p < .01$), early dating onset ($p < .05$) and use cigarettes ($p < .05$) are more likely to experience sexual intercourse prior to the age of 16 (N = 563). A second model found black males more likely to experience intercourse prior to age 16 if they report having trouble with teachers ($p < .01$), early dating onset ($p < .05$), use cigarettes ($p < .05$), see religion as very important in their lives ($p < .05$), have a mother who has received welfare payments ($p < .05$), and began early use of marijuana ($p < .05$).When all races and genders were assessed in model predicting sexual intercourse before age 16, ($N = 5,702$) several factors showed significance at the $p < .01$ level. These included early dating onset, failure of one or more of four core subjects, being African American, using cigarettes, having a mother who has received welfare, having been expelled from school, females experiencing forced sexual intercourse, father's attitude that is accepting of adolescents having sex with a steady girlfriend or boyfriend, use of alcohol outside of the family, early marijuana use, trouble with teachers and not feeling loved and wanted. African American youth were more than three times as likely as other races to experience sexual intercourse under age 16. Young women who had been forced to have sexual intercourse were more than three times as likely as those who had not been forced to experience sexual intercourse under age 16. A model (N = 3,080) predicting females who are forced to have sexual intercourse found significance at the $p < .01$ level for the following factors: early dating onset, African American, no residential father in the home, cigarette use, being expelled from school, use of alcohol outside of the family, and not feeling loved and wanted. Conversely, a model predicting males who force females to have intercourse found highest significance if there was no father in the home, the mother had received welfare, and parents were accepting of adolescent sexual intercourse with a steady girlfriend. Multiple partners were predicted in the final logistic regression model (N = 1,400) if the subject was male, had friends who used cigarettes, used alcohol outside of the family, had been dishonest with parents about whereabouts and for females, if they had experienced forced sexual intercourse. Implications of the findings for program and policy development are discussed, and recommendations are made for additional research with the Add Health public use dataset. [Source: DA]

Donohue, B., V. B. Van Hasselt, M. Hersen, and S. Perrin. 1998. “Role-Play Assessment of Social Skills in Conduct Disordered and Substance Abusing Adolescents: An Empirical Review.” Journal of Child & Adolescent Substance Abuse vol. 8, pp. 1-28.
Abstract: An integration and critical examination of studies that have evaluated social skill functioning in delinquent and substance abusing youth utilizing role-pray assessment is warranted. Hence, the purpose of this paper is threefold: (a) to delineate the often misunderstood term "social skill," (b) to describe role-play assessment, the most commonly utilized method to evaluate social skill functioning and, (c) to critically examine studies investigating social skills of conduct disordered and substance abusing adolescents. [Source: SC]

Gaviria, Alejandro. 1998. “Three Essays on Social Interactions and Intergenerational Mobility.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of California, San Diego.
Abstract: This dissertation consists of three loosely connected essays in applied microeconomics with a special emphasis on social interactions. The first essay uses a sample of tenth-graders drawn from the National Education Longitudinal Survey (NELS) to test for the presence of peer-group effects on five different activities: drug use, alcohol drinking, cigarette smoking, church going, and dropping-out of high school. The empirical analysis reveals strong evidence of peer-group effects at the school level for all activities analyzed. These effects remain after controlling for personal and school characteristics, family background variables, and several measures of parental behavior and parental involvement in their children's daily life. Mild evidence of endogeneity bias is found for two of the five activities analyzed (drug use and alcohol drinking). The second essay studies the interplay between borrowing constraints and intergenerational relations. This essay uncovers compelling evidence showing that the inability of parents to borrow against their children's earnings depresses the earnings of poor children vis-a-vis rich children with the same ability and retards social mobility among the poor. This evidence contradicts several recent studies that argue that innate ability is the overriding determinant of educational attainment in the United States. The essay also shows that siblings inequality seems to be independent of family wealth. This finding is important because it contradicts the predictions of most economic models of resource allocation within the family. The third essay offers an explanation to the escalation of violent crime that occurred in Colombia during the 1980s. The essay considers three implicit models that isolate different types of externalities among criminals. In the first model criminals make crime more appealing to nearby residents by congesting the law enforcement system and hence lowering the probability of punishment. In the second model the interaction of career criminals and local crooks speeds up the diffusion of criminal know-how and criminal technology. In the third model the daily contact of youth with criminal adults and criminal peers results in the erosion of morals and hence in a greater predisposition toward crime. The essay shows that a myriad of empirical evidence--both statistical and anecdotal--lends support to the previous models in general and to the congestion-in-law-enforcement model in particular. [Source: DA]

Hackerman, Ann E. and Paul King. 1998. “Adolescent Spirituality: A Foundation for Recovery from Drug Dependency.” Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly vol. 16, p. 89.
Abstract: Examines the spiritual basis for the treatment of adolescents who are chemically dependent, while focusing on three concepts associate with the Alcoholics Anonymous Program as a recovery initiative. Evidence supporting spiritual decline; Characteristics of adolescents diagnosed with chemical abuse; Significance of spirituality in recovery; Effectiveness of the Alcoholics Anonymous Program. [Source: AS]

Hughes, Jean Susan. 1998. “The Relationship of Leisure Lifestyle to Selected Risk Behaviors of Adolescents.” Ed.D. Thesis, University of Arkansas.
Abstract: Currently, there is a need to develop holistic models that address the multidimensional, psychosocial determinants of adolescent risk behavior. Approximately 40% of an adolescent's waking hours are unstructured, unsupervised discretionary time. This study surveyed 114 students in an alternative high school program. A risk behavior index was developed that was a composite measure of the incidence and severity of adolescent pregnancy, juvenile delinquency, substance use, undereducation, and stress. Using simultaneous regression, the risk index was examined in relation to (1) selected leisure variables of intrinsic leisure motivation, leisure constraints, leisure satisfaction and leisure interests; (2) selected social variables of gender, age, employment status of mother, income, number of adults in the household, relationship with parents, ruralness and number of siblings; (3) selected personal variables of school discipline problems, grade point average, absences, employment status of subject, and weekend curfew; and (4) selected group belonging variables of gang membership church membership, school athletics, school club, youth group, and community recreation agency. The leisure related measures used the intrinsic leisure motivation scale of Weissinger and Bandalos (1995), the leisure constraint scale of Raymore, Godbey, Crawford, and von Eye (1993), the leisure satisfaction scale of Ragheb and Beard (1980), and the leisure interest scale of Beard and Ragheb (1992). The results showed a negative relationship of the risk index to intrapersonal constraints, outdoor leisure interests and belonging to a church. There was a significant positive relationship between the risk index and belonging to a gang, working, problems at school and grade point average. None of the social variables were related to risk behavior. The significance of the study is the development of a risk index as a composite score. The study indicates a need to measure adolescent interests in order to meet their needs and create more involvement in structured settings. [Source: PI]

Johnson, K., D. D. Bryant, D. A. Collins, T. D. Noe, T. N. Strader, and M. Berbaum. 1998. “Preventing and Reducing Alcohol and Other Drug Use among High-Risk Youths by Increasing Family Resilience.” Social Work vol. 43, pp. 297-308.
Abstract: This study examines the effects of a community-based program designed to delay onset and reduce the frequency of alcohol and other drug (AOD) use among high-risk youths, ages 12 to 14, through strengthening family resilience. It is part of a larger five-year demonstration project funded by the Center for Substance Abuse Prevention (CSAP). The program was implemented in multiple church communities in rural, suburban, and inner-city settings. Program components of this study included parent or guardian and youth training, early intervention services, and follow-up case management services. The results show that the program produced positive direct effects on family resilience. The evaluation also found positive moderating effects on delayed onset of alcohol and other drug use and frequency of alcohol and other drug use among youths in the form of conditional relationships with changes in those family resilience factors that were targeted by the program. [Source: CI]

Lindenberg, C. S., R. Solorzano, M. Kelley, V. Darrow, S. C. Gendrop, and O. Strickland. 1998. “Competence and Drug Use: Theoretical Frameworks, Empirical Evidence and Measurement.” Journal of Drug Education vol. 28, pp. 117-134.
Abstract: Statistics show that use of harmful substances (alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine) among women of childbearing age is widespread and serious. Numerous theoretical models and empirical studies have attempted to explain the complex factors that lead individuals to use drugs. The Social Stress Model of Substance Abuse [1] is one model developed to explain parameters that influence drug use. According to the model, the likelihood df an individual engaging in drug use is seen as a function of the stress level and the extent to which it is offset by stress modifiers such as social networks, social competencies, and resources. The variables of the denominator are viewed as interacting with each other to buffer the impact of stress [I]. This article focuses on one of the constructs in this model: that of competence. It presents a summary of theoretical and conceptual formulations for the construct of competence, a review of empirical evidence for the association of competence with drug use, and describes the preliminary development of a multiscale instrument designed to assess drug protective competence among low-income Hispanic childbearing women. Based upon theoretical and empirical studies, eight domains of drug protective competence were identified and conceptually defined. Using subscales from existing instruments with psychometric evidence for their validity and reliability, a multi-scale instrument was developed to assess drug protective competence. Hypothesis testing was used to assess construct validity. Four drug protective competence domains (social influence, sociability, self-worth, and control/responsibility) were found to be statistically associated with drug use behaviors. Although not statistically significant, expected trends were observed between drug use and the other four domains of drug protective competence (intimacy, nurturance, goal directedness, and spiritual directedness). Study limitations and suggestions for further psychometric testing of the instrument are described. [Source: SC]

O'Malley, P. M., L. D. Johnston, and J. G. Bachman. 1998. “Alcohol Use among Adolescents.” Alcohol Health & Research World vol. 22, pp. 85-93.
Abstract: Several ongoing national surveys, including the Monitoring the Future study, the National Household Survey on Drug Abuse, and the Youth Risk Behavior Survey, are investigating the drinking behaviors of adolescents in the United States. These studies have found that the majority of adolescents under the age of 18 have consumed alcohol, although the minimum legal drinking age is 21. Drinking rates may even have increased in recent years in some age groups. No substantial differences exist among various sociodemographic subgroups with respect to drinking rates, although alcohol consumption generally is lowest among African-Americans and highest among whites. Moreover, alcohol consumption increases sharply throughout adolescence. Various attitudinal and behavioral factors, such as religious involvement, truancy, and average grade level, also influence adolescents' drinking behaviors. Almost two-thirds of 12th graders who report consuming alcohol experience at least one alcohol-related problem. Most adolescents drink to experience the pleasurable effects of alcohol such as having a good time with friends. [Source: SC]

Poulson, Ronald L., Marion A. Eppler, Tammy N. Satterwhite, Karl L. Wuensch, and Lessie A. Bass. 1998. “Alcohol Consumption, Strength of Religious Beliefs, and Risky Sexual Behavior in College Students.” Journal of American College Health vol. 46, pp. 227-232.

Scharf, Alice Anne. 1998. “Environmental Stress, Potential Protective Factors, and Adolescent Risk-Taking.” Ph.D. Thesis, Fordham University, New York.
Abstract: Recent research has examined the impact of various risk and protective factors on adolescent risk-taking behaviors; however these studies have been narrowly focused and often included aggregated indices measuring involvement in several behaviors. The present study examined contributions of life event stress and daily hassles as risk factors and religiosity and attitudinal intolerance for deviance as protective factors for five separate behaviors including: adolescent alcohol use, marijuana use, delinquent behaviors, risky sexual behaviors, and the potential for dropping out of school. Participants included 201 urban and mostly minority high school students from all four grades. Results from simultaneous regression analyses demonstrated the following eight significant interactions: life events and attitudinal intolerance for deviance, daily hassles and attitudinal intolerance for deviance, and life events and extrinsic religiosity for alcohol use; life events and extrinsic religiosity and life events and intrinsic religiosity for marijuana use; life events and attitudinal intolerance for deviance, daily hassles and attitudinal intolerance for deviance, and life events and extrinsic religiosity for delinquent behaviors; and life events and extrinsic religiosity for the potential for dropping out of school. Only main effects were found to be significant for levels of risky sexual behaviors. Being male significantly predicted higher levels of delinquent behaviors and risky sexual behaviors. All other demographics inconsistently predicted levels of risk-taking behaviors. For males, significant interactions were found for alcohol use and delinquent behaviors. And for females, significant interactions included life event stress with extrinsic religiosity and life event stress with intrinsic religiosity for alcohol use. Results indicate that levels of religiosity and attitudinal intolerance for deviance generally had moderating effects for adolescents experiencing high levels of life events or daily hassles. Contributions of both stressors to higher levels of all five risk-taking behaviors suggest that involvement in these behaviors may be maladaptive ways to cope with stress. High levels of protective factors appear to guard adolescents against involvement in substance use, delinquency, and the potential for dropping out of school. Adolescents facing high levels of stress who have low levels of protective factors are at particular risk for engagement in risk-taking behaviors in response to stress. [Source: DA]

Wallace, John M., Jr. and Tyrone A. Forman. 1998. “Religion's Role in Promoting Health and Reducing Risk among American Youth.” Health Education and Behavior vol. 25, pp. 721-741.
Abstract: Although past research has documented religion's salutary impact on adult health-related behaviors and outcomes, relatively little research has examined the relationship between religion and adolescent health. This study uses large, nationally representative samples of high school seniors to examine the relationship between religious importance, attendance, and affiliation and behaviors that compromise or enhance adolescents' health (unintentional and intentional injury, substance use, lifestyle behaviors). Relative to their peers, religious youth are less likely to engage in behaviors that compromise their health (e.g., carrying weapons, getting into fights, drinking and driving) and are more likely to behave in ways that enhance their health (e.g., proper nutrition, exercise, and rest). Multivariate analyses suggest that these relationships persist even after controlling for demographic factors, and trend analyses reveal that they have existed over time. Particularly important is the finding that religious seniors have been relatively unaffected by past and recent increases in marijuana use. [Source: PI]

Wright, Pamela Purdy. 1998. “A Different Perspective: A Phenomenological Study of Adolescents Identifying Their Experiences Using Legal and Illegal Substances.” Ph.D. Thesis, The Wright Institute.
Abstract: Epidemiological research has provided information about the frequency, quantity, and types of drugs used among adolescents as well as theories on causation, initiation of use, and profiles of those who are at risk. Adolescent substance use is still increasing. Phenomenological research provides a means to understand the attraction to an altered state of consciousness with legal and illegal substances. At a suburban high school in San Mateo County, 162 out of 277 ethnically diverse Seniors participated in the study. Using a 1-5 Likert scale, 137 participants rated how often they had a particular phenomenological experience when they used their favorite legal or illegal substance. A total of 125 Phenomenological Descriptions of Drug Use (PDDU) were analyzed: caffeine (n = 53), alcohol (n = 48), and marijuana (n = 24). The 35 phenomenological descriptors developed by the researcher related to changes in thought process, time perception, sense of self, emotions, physical being, spirituality, and sensory perceptions. A questionnaire addressed the variables of prescription drugs, peer influence, and accessibility of drugs. There were no skewed effects from the variables. Parametric and non-parametric statistics were used to analyze descriptive data and hypotheses. The six highest-rated descriptors were all in the categories of 'emotional' and 'sense of self' and seemed to address needs that are unfilled in the high school youth of today. For 24 of the 35 descriptors, statistically different experiences were reported, related to type of drug favored. Five descriptors had a statistically significant main effect for gender and/or a significant interaction between favorite drug and gender. Six descriptors had a statistically main effect for ethnicity with 4 groups (Caucasian, Chinese, Hispanic/Latino, and Korean). This research corroborates the results of other phenomenological studies: substance users seek an altered state of consciousness. Caffeine, a stimulant, even served this purpose. Many of the 35 phenomenological descriptors have validity most evident with use of caffeine, alcohol, and marijuana. This phenomenological study is unique in that the participants are a non-addicted, ethnically diverse population. [Source: PI]

Yarnold, Barbara M. 1998. “Steroid Use among Miami's Public School Students, 1992: Alternative Subcultures: Religion and Music Versus Peers and the "Body Cult".” Psychological Reports vol. 82, pp. 19-24.
Abstract: This analysis examined self-reported use of steroids by 478 adolescents in Dade County, Florida public schools during 1992. Statistically significant factors which tended to increase the probability of steroid use by adolescents included peer use of steroids, being male, and residing either with their mothers or on their own. The only statistically significant variables which are negatively related to steroid use are that religion is an important part of their lives and that students are involved in musical activities at school. [Source: SS]

Ark, Pamela Dale. 1997. “Health Risk Behaviors and Coping Strategies of African- American Sixth Graders.” Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Tennessee Center For the Health Sciences, Memphis.
Abstract: Children, eleven to fourteen years, experience times of lifestyle change. Children can develop health behaviors that could result in illness and premature death. The reduction of risk behaviors among children, addressed in the Healthy People 2000 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990) goals, recommended education regarding injury prevention, physical activity. and healthy nutritional choices. Study purposes included: examine height, weight, and blood pressure measurements; investigate health risk behaviors and coping strategies; and determine relationships among physiological variables, health behaviors, and coping strategies. Health behaviors were measured by a version of 1995 CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), a 70 item survey on unintentional injuries; tobacco, alcohol, and drug use; dietary behavior; and physical activity. Coping strategies were measured by Ryan-Wenger's Schoolagers Coping Strategies Inventory (SCSI), a 26 item survey on frequency and effectiveness of coping strategies. The conceptual framework guiding the study was Neuman's Systems Model (1995). Client variables included: physiological: height, weight, and blood pressure measurements; psychological: coping strategies; sociocultural: living in proximity to inner city school; developmental: age and gender; and spiritual: prayer as a coping strategy. The sample was 173 African American sixth graders, ages 11 to 14, females (n = 98) and males (n = 75), from five inner city schools with written parental consent. There was no statistical difference by gender in body mass index. Statistical differences were found by gender with more males than females reporting physical fighting. Older males than females, ages 12 and 13, reported tobacco and marijuana use. There was zero reported use of cocaine and no statistical differences by gender on alcohol, dietary behaviors, or physical activity. Coping strategies (sample mean was 19.4) reported more often were prayer (75 percent) and watch television or listen to music (75 percent). Multiple regression showed interaction effects of unintentional injuries with gender and SCSI effectiveness scale. There were statistical differences in means between females and males, ages 12 and 13, suggesting need for further investigation of coping strategies. Further investigation of coping strategies among sixth graders and their family in relationship with the environment is recommended to determine coping strategies of the family unit. [Source: DA]

Belgrave, Faye Z., Tiffany G. Townsend, Valerie R. Cherry, and Dellena M. Cunningham. 1997. “The Influence of an Africentric Worldview and Demographic Variables on Drug Knowledge, Attitudes, and Use among African American Youth.” Journal of Community Psychology vol. 25, pp. 421-433.
Abstract: Examined the influence of Africentric values, spirituality, and demographic variables on drug knowledge, attitudes, and use. Participants were 189 4th- and 5th-graders (83 males and 106 females; aged 8.5-13 yrs) attending public schools. Measures of Africentric values (i.e., Collective Work/Responsibility, Cooperative Economics, and Self-Determination), spirituality, age, and whether or not the child resided in a 2- or 1-parent household were obtained. The results of regression analyses indicated that Collective Work/Responsibility and Cooperative Economics were significant predictors of attitudes toward drugs. Collective Work/Responsibility and spirituality were significant predictors of perceived drug harmfulness. Age and spirituality were significant predictors of drug usage. Age was the only significant predictor of drug knowledge. The Collective Work/Responsibility subscale was the strongest predictor of drug outcomes. The implications for using Africentric prevention approaches for decreasing risk factors and increasing protective factors for drug use among African American youth are discussed. [Source: PI]

Benda, Brent B. 1997. “An Examination of a Reciprocal Relationship between Religiosity and Different Forms of Delinquency within a Theoretical Model.” Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency vol. 34, pp. 163-186.
Abstract: Results from a study of 1,093 adolescents (aged 13-20 yrs) do not support the argument that property crimes, crimes against persons, and use of alcohol and other drugs are behavior manifestations of an interrelated constellation or syndrome of delinquency. A factor analysis clearly shows that the various forms of delinquency studied load on three distinct factors. In addition, whereas the hypothesized theoretical model does explain considerable variation in frequency of alcohol use and of criminal behavior (22% and 24%, respectively), it does not account for much variance in drug use (6%). Whereas there are reciprocal relationships between religiosity and drug use and religiosity and crime, only the feedback effect of religiosity on alcohol use is significant. These latter findings suggest that future studies need to examine reciprocal relationships and that the relationship between alcohol use and religiosity needs to be re-examined conceptually and empirically in future studies. [Source: PI]

Benda, Brent B. and Robert Flynn Corwyn. 1997. “A Test of a Model with Reciprocal Effects between Religiosity and Various Forms of Delinquency Using 2-Stage Least Squares Regression.” Journal of Social Service Research vol. 22, pp. 27-52.
Abstract: This was a study of 1,093 9th-12th graders from 6 different public high schools, where the same integrated theoretical model of control and social learning theories fit the data on alcohol use, heavy alcohol consumption, use of marijuana, criminal behavior, sexual exploration, and suicidal thoughts. It was observed that the model explained significantly more variance in some of these forms of delinquency than in others, indicating only equivocal support for the deviance syndrome argument in the literature. This study also found that religiosity was a significant influence only on criminal behavior, whereas the feedback effect of delinquency on religiosity was significant for all forms of delinquent behavior studied. [Source: PI]

Cook, Christopher C. H., Deborah Goddard, and Rachel Westall. 1997. “Knowledge and Experience of Drug Use Amongst Church Affiliated Young People.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence vol. 46, pp. 9-17.
Abstract: Prevalence of drug use was estimated among 7,666 church-affiliated young people in GB, drawing on 1995 self-report questionnaire data. For subjects (Ss) ages 12-16, 23.4% had been offered at least one of a list of drugs, & 9.7% had tried such drugs. For Ss ages 17-30, the figures were 46.1% & 23.3%, respectively. These figures are perhaps slightly less than those obtained in secular surveys. Those who gave more positive responses to questions on Christian commitment were less likely than those who did not to have been offered any of the drugs or to have used them. A lifetime history of ever having smoked demonstrated a far stronger association, with smokers being 15-20 times more likely to have used one of the listed drugs. [Source: SA]

Corwyn, Robert Flynn, Brent B. Benda, and Karen Ballard. 1997. “Do the Same Theoretical Factors Explain Alcohol and Other Drug Use among Adolescents?” Alcoholism Treatment Quarterly vol. 15, pp. 47-62.
Abstract: Scale data from 1,093 adolescents from six public high schools in MD, OK, & AR showed that the same theoretical model of control & social learning theories fit reports of alcohol & marijuana use, but did not explain the use of amphetamines, barbituates, cocaine, or opiates. Religiosity was a significant influence only on certain forms of drug use whereas the feedback effect of drug use on religiosity was significant for all forms. Implications for treatment intervention are discussed. [Source: SA]

Francis, Leslie J. 1997. “The Impact of Personality and Religion on Attitude Towards Substance Use among 13-15 Year Olds.” Drug and Alcohol Dependence vol. 44, pp. 95-103.
Abstract: A sample of 11,173 13-15 yr old secondary school pupils completed a scale of attitude towards substance use alongside the short form of the Junior Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), measures of personal religiosity and an index of denominational identity. The data demonstrate that a negative attitude toward substance use is associated with tendermindedness, introversion, stability and social conformity. Personal religiosity and membership of Protestant sects are also positively correlated with rejection of substance use, even after controlling for individual differences in personality. [Source: PI]

Gilfort, April Jackson. 1997. “The Relationship of Cultural Theme Discussion to Engagement with Acting out, African-American Male Adolescents in Family Therapy.” Ph.D. Thesis, Temple University.
Abstract: The following study examines the relationship between cultural theme discussion within the therapy session and adolescent behaviors that characterize engagement and disengagement (i.e. therapeutic relationship, patient participation, exploration, and negativity). Discussion of nine cultural themes (trust/mistrust, anger/rage, alienation, respect/disrespect, spirituality, the journey from boyhood to manhood, issues of racial identity and socialization, racism, and hopelessness) with substance using, conduct disordered, African American male adolescents in family therapy was examined as a way to enhance the therapy engagement of these adolescents within Multidimensional Family Therapy. During sessions when these adolescents were judged to be the most engaged, when they were rated to have the highest level of collaboration with their therapist, and when they were judged to be exploring their feelings and emotions to the highest level, it was found that these young, African American men discussed their Journey from Boyhood to Manhood in the very next session. Additionally, it was found that when adolescents and their therapists spend more time discussing the themes of anger/rage, alienation, and Journey from Boyhood to Manhood they show more behaviors characterizing engagement and less behaviors which characterize disengagement in the same session and in the session following their highest level of discussion. [Source: DA]

Kutter, Catherine J. and Diane S. McDermott. 1997. “The Role of the Church in Adolescent Drug Education.” Journal of Drug Education vol. 27, pp. 293-305.
Abstract: In the present study, interactions among 3 dimensions of religiosity were evaluated in 238 adolescents (aged 13-18 yrs): (1) religious proscriptiveness, (2) involvement in church activities (ICA), and (3) the importance an individual places on church activities (IM). Each has previously demonstrated an inverse relationship with adolescent substance use. Religious proscriptiveness interacted with ICA and with IM in relation to adolescent use of alcohol, cigarettes, marijuana, and other drugs. Additionally, among adolescents who had ever used alcohol, a positive relationship was observed between religious proscriptiveness and binge drinking such that the highest incidence of binge drinking was reported by those affiliated with proscriptive religious groups. Findings suggest that the church may be an important vehicle for drug education. [Source: PI]

McFadden, C. L. and J. K. Yardley. 1997. “Substance Use as a Predictor of School Outcomes.” Research Quarterly for Exercise & Sport vol. 68, pp. A-40.
Abstract: Represents information on the Youth Leisure Study (YLS) which presents the predictive findings of five substance use variables on four school outcomes, controlling for some demographic characteristics and importance of religion. What the YLS questionnaire contained; Findings of the study outlined; What the findings demonstrate; What school problems are associated with. [Source: AS]

Navarro, Jay, Stan Wilson, Lawrence R. Berger, and Timothy Taylor. 1997. “Substance Abuse and Spirituality: A Program for Native American Students.” American Journal of Health Behavior vol. 21, pp. 3-11.
Abstract: An innovative program to prevent substance abuse among Native American students, implemented at the Instit for American Indian Arts in Santa Fe, NM, emphasized traditional values, history, & spirituality to enhance self-esteem. It involved readings, classroom discussions, Native American ceremonies, & student projects. Among the issues that surfaced were concerns about identifying "legitimate" elders for ceremonies, extensive diversity among Native American youth, relative neglect in the literature of women's importance in tribal life, & both common & conflicting religious themes among different tribes. The program was evaluated via final exam essays & class discussion among 35 students. [Source: SA]

Neumark Sztainer, Dianne, Mary Story, Simone A. French, and Michael D. Resnick. 1997. “Psychosocial Correlates of Health Compromising Behaviors among Adolescents.” Health Education Research vol. 12, pp. 37-52.
Abstract: Investigated psychosocial correlates of diverse health-compromising behaviors among adolescents of different ages. Ss included 123,132 11-21 yr old males and females in 6th, 9th, and 12th grade. Psychosocial correlates of substance abuse, delinquency, suicide risk, sexual activity, and unhealthy weight loss behaviors were examined. Psychosocial variables included emotional well-being, self-esteem, risk-taking disposition, number of concerns, extracurricular involvement, religiosity, school connectedness and achievement, physical and sexual abuse, and family connectedness and structure. Results show that risk-taking disposition was associated with nearly every behavior across age and gender groups. Other consistent correlates included sexual abuse and family connectedness. Correlates of health-compromising behaviors tended to be consistent across age groups. However, stronger associations were noted between sexual abuse and substance use for younger adolescents, and risk-taking disposition and school achievement were stronger correlates for older youth. Findings suggest the presence of both common and unique etiological factors for different health-compromising behaviors among youth. [Source: PI]

Sutherland, M. S., C. D. Hale, G. J. Harris, P. Stalls, and D. Foulk. 1997. “Strengthening Rural Youth Resiliency through the Church.” Journal of Health Education vol. 28, pp. 205-218.
Abstract: A coalition of six African American churches in Jackson County, Florida was formed in the mid-1980s, first to provide prevention services to older church and community members. Alliance services were expanded later to include alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) at risk youth. Project year one (1991) (or fiscal year 1991-92) served as the baseline comparison year. Each church was of a size where all participating youth could be identified and given the opportunity to contribute data. Accordingly, these same youth were surveyed both in project years one and four (fiscal year 1994-95). Data were gathered by trained interviewers using jury validated questionnaires. Self-reports of substance use have been found to be relatively stable across time. Significance was tested using the chi-square test for equality of proportions. There is strong indication of substantial behavior change. Fifteen of the 34 target attitudes and behaviors showed statistically significant changes. In general, most of the changes were positive. In 1994 (compared to 1991) children were more likely to avoid drinking alcohol, stay away from bad situations, count on their friends for help when confronting serious problems, less likely to participate when friends "get high," have healthier self-images, and perform better in school. Gender had no effect on responses. [Source: CI]

Albrecht, Stan L., Cheryl Amey, and Michael K. Miller. 1996. “Patterns of Substance Abuse among Rural Black Adolescents.” Journal of Drug Issues vol. 26, pp. 751-781.
Abstract: Data from the most recent Monitoring the Future survey (N = 12,168 high school seniors) are used to examine the role of race & residence in substance abuse patterns. Consistent with previously reported research, residence differences are modest, & black youth are much less likely then whites to report drug use. In the bivariate analysis, major correlates of use include gender, family structure, religious attendance, grade point average (GPA), & availability of unearned income. In the multivariate analysis, race, family structure, religious attendance, GPA, & unearned income remain significant. The potential protective role played by family & church in drug use by rural, black adolescents is discussed. [Source: SA]

Amey, Cheryl H., Stan L. Albrecht, and Michael K. Miller. 1996. “Racial Differences in Adolescent Drug Use: The Impact of Religion.” Substance Use and Misuse vol. 31, pp. 1311-1332.
Abstract: Investigated the extent to which differences in religiosity are responsible for racial differences in adolescent drug use, using data from the Monitoring the Future survey of high school seniors (N = 11,728, average age 17 or 18 yrs). Specifically, this study examined: (1) in a bivariate context, the relationship between race and 3 measures of religiosity: religious affiliation, attendance, and importance; (2) the relationship between these measures of religiosity and cigarette smoking, drinking, marijuana use, and the use of other illegal drugs; and (3) drug use in a multivariate context. Statistical analyses show that religion does provide some protection from drug use by adolescents. However, religiosity has less of an impact on the drug use of Black adolescents, perhaps as a result of the diverse roles of the Black church. [Source: PI]

Chandy, Joseph M., Robert W. Blum, and Michael D. Resnick. 1996. “Female Adolescents with a History of Sexual Abuse: Risk Outcome and Protective Factors.” Journal of Interpersonal Violence vol. 11, pp. 503-518.
Abstract: Examined the school performance, suicidal involvement, disordered eating behaviors, pregnancy risk, and chemical use of 1,011 female teenagers with a history of sexual abuse and a comparison group of 1,011 female teenagers without a background of abuse. Results show that abused Ss had higher rates of these adverse outcomes than nonabused Ss. Among abused Ss, protective factors against adverse outcome included a higher degree of religiosity, perceived health, caring from adults, living with both biological parents, and the presence of a clinic or nurse at school. Risk factors that increased the likelihood of adverse outcome included perceived substance use in school, mothers' use of alcohol, family stressor events during the past year, and worry about sexual coercion. [Source: PI]

Corcoran, Jacqueline. 1996. “Ecological Factors Associated with Adolescent Pregnancy and Parenting.” Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Texas At Austin.
Abstract: The central purpose of this research was to discover, using Bronfenbrenner's conceptual framework (1979) of an ecological systems model, the combination of factors that successfully predicted pregnancy/parenting status in a convenience sample of 105 teens attending pregnancy prevention programs across a southwestern state. Non-pregnant/non-parenting teens were compared with pregnant and/or parenting teens along factors organized by the following three main systems of interacting categories of variables as explicated by Bronfenbrenner (1979): (1) the microsystem consisting of the psychological variables of self-esteem, depression, and stress levels experienced, and the social psychological variables of alcohol and drug abuse; (2) the mesosystem consisting of religious affiliation and family structure, family functioning, problems with friends, the neighborhood, and the school as well as enacted social support; (3) the macrosystem consisting of household income, parents' occupations, and race. Logistic regression modeling with the entire data set as well as gender and race subsets indicated support for an ecological systems model. The final model included macrolevel (income), mesolevel (communication problems within the family, Catholic religious affiliation, a positive relationship with school, fiancial support from family), and microlevel (age, high stress) factors that acted in combination to predict pregnancy status. The female-only group (N = 82) and the Hispanic group (N = 42) were the only subsamples to have enough members to support statistical modeling. The model for females includes the macrosystem variables of age and income, the mesosystem variables of religious orientation, emotional support from friends, and family communication, and the microsystem variables of depression and drug use. For Hispanics, the macrosystem variables of age and income and the microsystem variable of stress were the factors to enter the logistic regression model. Suggestions for future research and policy and service delivery recommendations are discussed. [Source: DA]

Diniaco, Georgiann. 1996. “The Relationship of Family Status and Alcohol and Other Drug Use among Adolescents.” Ph.D. Thesis, The Ohio State University.
Abstract: The purpose of this collaborative descriptive study was to determine the relationship of family status and (1) adolescent alcohol and other drug use; (2) create an adolescent profile and (3) identify predictors of alcohol use for adolescents living within these family status groups. Population included a total of 57,494 students grades 6-12 enrolled during the fall 1994-95 within 18 districts which were members of the Drug-Free Schools Consortium, which included a midwestern city and surrounding suburban schools. The Primary Prevention Awareness, Attitude, and Usage Scales (PPAAUS) and locally developed Activities and Experiences inventory were used to conduct this study. Chi square analyses found differences by family status groups with the following characteristics: race, grade average, post high school plans; alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana use; family messages; the intent/willingness to use alcohol, cigarettes and marijuana; location of use; decision making factors; activity involvement; negative behaviors; resource person and feelings. Gender and grade level differences were reported within each family status group. The CHAID Analysis reported the following predictors of alcohol use. Grade level was reported as the number one predictor for use for all family status groups. The importance of family values, family messages and social involvement were identified as predictors for certain grade levels within all the family status groups. Involvement with religion, community service, sports and physical activities, academics and work for pay; feeling happy, sad, angry and stressed; acceptance of friends, ethnic background, and gender differences were also reported as predictors of alcohol use with the various family status groups. Recommendations were made for further research and family prevention programming. [Source: DA]

Hopkins, Gary Lee. 1996. “An AIDS Risk Appraisal of Students Attending Seventh-Day Adventist High Schools in the United States and Canada.” Ph.D. Thesis, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda.
Abstract: Since its first recognition in 1981, the Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) has become a global disease of increasing prevalence. Because there is no current cure or vaccination available to effectively prevent AIDS, health education has become an important method of reducing the transmission of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) which is known to cause AIDS. A substantial amount of research has been conducted in public high schools aimed at identifying determinants of students AIDS-risk behaviors. With the exception of one study conducted by Ludescher (1992), theory based AIDS- behavioral research in Christian student populations have not been reported. In the present study, 1,748 students attending 69 Seventh-day Adventist (SDA) four-year high schools completed a self-administered questionnaire designed to assess (1) the HIV/AIDS-related behaviors of substance use and sexual intercourse before marriage and the determinants of these two risk behaviors based on the theory of planned behavior (TPB) (Ajzen, 1989), and (2) HIV/AIDS related attitudes, normative beliefs, and perceived control in a sample of SDA high school students based on the TPB. A substantial number of research participants reported prior sexual and drug use behaviors. The rates of both of these behaviors were lower in SDA than in non-SDA respondents. Those students who reported that their parent(s) used either tobacco, alcohol, or marijuana demonstrated higher rates of past sexual intercourse and substance use than those students who reported that their parent(s) were not users of any of the three substances. Using multiple regression analysis, the best predictor of the respondents intention to have sexual intercourse before marriage their perceived control over this behavior. Further, the cognitive underpinnings that best predicted the students perceived control regarding sexual intercourse before marriage were spiritual strength and encouragement from their teachers. Useful conclusions drawn from this research were not that a certain proportion of SDA youth engaged in sexual behaviors or substance use, but were rather that SDA youth are not immune or exempt from engaging in behaviors that place them at risk for unintended pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases including AIDS. Also, some of the cognitive underpinnings of the student's attitudes, subjective norms, and perceived control as they relate to sexual intercourse have now been identified. Educators can now act by creatively designing strategies that when implemented may serve to reduce the consequences of the acts studied. The Office of Education of the North American Division of Seventh-day Adventists might consider a continuous assessment based on behavioral theory that would further clarify determinants of health risk behaviors in their student population in the future. An analysis such as this would allow for quick corrective interventions when indicated. [Source: DA]

Johanson, C. E., F. F. Duffey, and J. C. Anthony. 1996. “Associations between Drug Use and Behavioral Repertoire in Urban Youths.” Addiction vol. 91, pp. 523-534.
Abstract: Converging with psyche-social research findings, animal and human laboratory studies indicate that behavioral alternatives are important determinants of drug-taking. To investigate associations between how early adolescents spend their time, i.e. their behavioral repertoire and drug use (use of marijuana, crack/cocaine or inhalants), we analyzed data from an epidemiological sample of 1516 urban middle-school students who had completed private interviews in spring 1993. The interview included a 36-item questionnaire to assess how frequently the youth engaged in different activities; history of drug-taking was assessed separately. Multiple logistic regression was wed to estimate associations between drug we and each of seven behavioral domains as well as sex, age and racial-ethnic status. Youths spending a great deal of time working for pay and assuming other adult-like roles were more likely to have initiated drug use (estimated odds ratio, OR = 3.49; p = 0.002). Those who spent much time in religious activities were less likely (OR = 0.2, p < 0.001). An exploratory search for interactions disclosed other associations that merit attention in future research. These results corroborate evidence on the potential etiological significance of behavioral repertoire in relation to risk of drug use. [Source: SC]

Johnson, Knowlton, Denise Bryant, Ted Strader, Gregory Bucholtz, D. Collins, and T. Noe. 1996. “Reducing Alcohol and Other Drug Use by Strengthening Community, Family, and Youth Resiliency: An Evaluation of the Creating Lasting Connections Program.” Journal of Adolescent Research vol. 11, pp. 36-67.
Abstract: Examines the Creating Lasting Connections (CLC) program, a 5-yr demonstration project for delaying and reducing alcohol and drug use among high-risk 12-24 yr olds, and reports the findings from its implementation in multiple church communities. CLC aims to positively impact resiliency factors in 3 domains: Church community, family, and individual. Its major components include community mobilization, parent/guardian and youth training, early intervention, and follow-up case management services. Its implementation in rural, suburban and inner-city settings was evaluated over a 1 yr period. Data collected before CLC initiation, after parent and youth training, and after the followup case management reveals that CLC successfully engaged church communities in substance abuse activities, and produced positive direct effects on family and youth resiliency. It had moderating effects on onset and frequency of alcohol and drug use. [Source: PI]

Livingston, Bobby L., Sr. 1996. “The Faith Community Participating as an Advocate for Spiritual Construction and Reconstruction in an Urban Context.” Thesis, Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, D.C.
Abstract: This project seeks to eliminate use of illicit drugs by young black males in an urban context by using a pedagogic program/initiative in a faith community. The project found that the root cause of problems involving "crack" cocaine probably stems from economic inequality and the USA's unwillingness to promote fair employment treatment for all citizens. Interdiction by law enforcement agencies and community-based street patrols are among the failed efforts to eradicate the problem. Successful resolutions can occur by using biblical teachings, and through supporting and encouraging courageous mothers and parents who rear their children to understand the importance of respect for authority and love for God, for self, and for others. The project recommends a wholistic approach that involves every segment of our society to rectify the problem. [Source: RI]

McBride, Duane C., Patricia B. Mutch, and Dale D. Chitwood. 1996. “Religious Belief and the Initiation and Prevention of Drug Use among Youth.” Pp. 110-130 in Intervening with Drug Involved Youth, edited by Clyde B. McCoy and Lisa R. Metsch. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc.
Abstract: (from the chapter) examine briefly selected religious perspectives on alcohol and drug use and chemically altered states of consciousness review selected literature on the empirical relationship between religious values and drug use examine data on reasons for alcohol and drug abstinence among college students in 2 colleges operated by a proscriptive Christian denomination [examine] the theological and philosophical underpinnings of religious views, reviewing selected empirical literature on religiosity and drug use religion and altered states of consciousness [altered states of consiousness and the monotheistic religions, Judaism and alcohol and drugs, Christianity and alcohol and drugs, Islam and alcohol and drugs] the empirical relationship between drug use and religious values and involvement reasons for abstinence in a conservative Christian young adult population [reasons for abstinence, differences in ethnicity, a note on gender differences] data were . . . presented showing that specific religious commitment may be a powerful component of abstinence decisions among religious youth, particularly minority youth [Source: PI]

Mott, Frank L., Michelle M. Fondell, Paul N. Hu, Lori Kowaleski Jones, and Elizabeth G. Menaghan. 1996. “The Determinants of First Sex by Age 14 in a High- Risk Adolescent Population.” Family Planning Perspectives vol. 28, pp. 13-16.
Abstract: Study indicates several factors, including mother's early sexual activity and extensive work, to determine whether person would have sex by age of 14. A study using data for mothers from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth and their children aged 14 or older indicates that, after accounting for a wide range demographic and socioeconomic antecedents, children are significantly more likely to become sexually active before age 14 if their mother had sex at an early age and if she has worked extensively. In addition, early sexual debut is eight times as likely among black boys as among-non- Hispanic white boys. Children who use controlled substances at an early age are more than twice as likely to have sex before age 14 as those who do not, although the type of substance having an effect is different for girls (cigarettes) and boys (alcohol). Church attendance is an important determinant of delayed sexual activity, but only when a child's friends attend the same church. [Source: CW]

Nylander, Albert B., III, Yuk Ying Tung, and Xiaohe Xu. 1996. “The Effect of Religion on Adolescent Drug Use in America: An Assessment of Change, 1976-1992.” Paper presented at American Sociological Association (ASA).
Abstract: Utilizes multiple birth cohorts as a marker of historical times to examine the important impacts of religion on the use of drugs among US high school seniors ages 17-18. Ordinary least squares & tobit analyses were used to test the usefulness of religious variables on using other illegal drugs & marijuana across 3 birth cohorts 1976-1992. The data analyzed were from the cumulative "Monitoring the Future: A Continuing Study of the Lifestyles and Values of Youths, 1976-1992: Concatenated Core File," which was obtained from the Inter-University Consortium for Political & Social Research at the U of Michigan (Bachman, Johnston, & O'Mally, 1994). The results show that adolescents who found religion more important to their life were less likely to use drugs than those who did not, & that religion is a predictor of the use of drugs across each birth cohort, although the strength of the coefficients decline for each successive birth cohort. It is shown that religion serves as a mechanism of social control. Moreover, for all birth cohorts, the effects of religion remained statistically significant in predicting adolescent drug use. Similar results were found for both ordinary least squares & tobit regression. [Source: SA]

Oler, Carlton Hugh. 1996. “Spirituality, Racial Identity, and Intentions to Use Alcohol and Other Drugs among African-American Youth.” Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cincinnati.
Abstract: Two hundred and forty-nine African-American 4th, 5th, and 6th graders attending predominantly African-American secular and non-secular elementary schools participated in a study to investigate the relations of spirituality, racial identity, and intentions to use alcohol and other drugs. The students completed the (1) Children's Drug Use Survey (CDUS), Oetting et al., 1985); (2) Botvin Alcohol and Drug Attitude Scale (BADAS, Botvin et al., 1990); (3) Tentative Drug Use Scale (TDUS, Horan and Williams, 1975); (4) Age Universal Religious Orientation Scale-Revised (AUROS-R, Gorsuch and McPherson, 1989); (5) Religious Commitment Questionnaire (RCQ, Penneck and Epperson, 1985); (6) Banks Scale (BS, Banks, 1984); and a (7) Demographic Information Sheet. The results showed that (1) African-American students higher in spirituality and racial identity did have significantly stronger disapproving attitudes about the use of alcohol and other drugs than those students with lower levels, and that (2) African-American students higher in spirituality evinced greater intentions not to use alcohol and other drugs than those students with lower levels. Additionally, there were a number of significant differences relative to school-type, SES, and grade level. Some differences included that students in non-secular schools had a higher spirituality and racial identity, and engaged in less substance use than students in secular schools, and that students from lower SES backgrounds considered religion more important than students from higher SES backgrounds, although students from higher SES levels attended church more often. Based upon the results of the study, it was concluded that spirituality and racial identity, particularly spirituality, do predict African-American preadolescents' receptivity to the use of alcohol and other drugs, and that efforts should be made to strengthen students in these areas to buffer them from media and peer pressure to use. Limitations of the study and su [Source: PI]

Perkins, Daniel Francis. 1996. “An Examination of the Organismic, Behavioral, and Contextual Covariates of Risk Behaviors among Diverse Groups of Adolescents.” Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University, Detroit.
Abstract: This study explored the interrelationship of risk behaviors (i.e., alcohol and drug use, antisocial behavior/delinquency, sexual activity, and school misconduct) and, in turn, their relationships with individual-organismic characteristics (i.e., age, gender, and ethnicity), individual-behavioral characteristics (i.e., involvement in extracurricular activities, religiosity, and view of the future), and contextual characteristics (i.e., family support, parent-adolescent communication, peer group characteristics, and school climate). A sample of 16,375 Michigan adolescents, aged 12 to 17 years, derived from the Community-Based Profile of Michigan Youth study, was administered the Search Institute Profiles of Student Life: Attitudes and Behaviors Questionnaire (ABQ), a self report measure indexing adolescents' attitudes and behaviors. In almost all cases, correlations among risk behaviors within the entire sample and within the age, gender, and ethnic subgroups were significant. Correlations between males and females and among the racial/ethnic and age groups generally did not differ significantly. However, intercorrelations among European American adolescents were generally higher than was the case for corresponding correlations among African American adolescents. Multiple regressions were used to assess how the risk behaviors were predicted by the individual and contextual characteristics, and to determine whether this covariation differed among subgroups. All results were significant and, across equations, peer group characteristics was the most frequent significant predictor. Age, gender, and religiosity were significant predictors, particularly in the multiple regressions for sexual activity. Self-esteem, parent-adolescent communication, view of the future, and family support were not significant predictors. Results were discussed in regard to this study's limitations and to directions for future research. Limitations were associated with the study's cross sect. [Source: PI]

Weinbender, Miriam L. M. and Annette MacKay Rossignol. 1996. “Lifestyle and Risk of Premature Sexual Activity in a High School Population of Seventh-Day Adventists: Valuegenesis 1989.” Adolescence vol. 31, pp. 265-281.
Abstract: Evaluated Seventh-Day Adventist (SDA) lifestyle as a modification of popular American culture that reduces the risk of early sexual activity in adolescents. Ss were 8,321 SDA students from 58 high schools who responded to a questionnaire concerning specific behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes that appear to be associated with high-risk health behaviors among this population. Results are consistent with those from other populations regarding the associations between adolescent sexual activity and the use of alcohol, tobacco, and marijuana. In addition, several behaviors that are discouraged within SDA culture, such as going to a movie theater, drinking caffeinated beverages, or participating in competitive sports, also were associated with early sexual activity among SDA youth. It is hypothesized that these latter behaviors may predict the emergence of other high-risk behaviors in both SDA and popular cultures. [Source: PI]

Berkowitz, M. W., A. L. Begun, A. Zweben, J