African-American

Hestick, H., S. C. Perrino, W. A. Rhodes, and K. D. Sydnor. 2001. "Trial and Lifetime Smoking Risks among African American College Students." Journal of American College Health vol. 49, pp. 213-219.
Abstract: The authors surveyed 614 African American university students to determine the magnitude of cigarette use, identify risk factors, and develop models to predict smoking. More than half (58.3%) of the participants had smoked at least once, and 9.3% of that group were lifetime smokers. Among the lifetime smokers, 71.3% had smoked during the 30 days preceding the survey. More women (66.8%) than men (56.1%) had tried smoking and were classed as lifetime smokers. Residence, parental, and peer smoking (current and childhood) were associated with trying smoking; age, race/ethnicity, and marital status were additional factors for becoming a lifetime smoker. The risk of being a lifetime smoker was reduced when neither friends nor parents of the student smoked and the student viewed spirituality as important. The results of this study add to the growing understanding of health risk behaviors among African Americans and can be useful in reducing smoking. [Source: ML]

Kurtz, M. E., J. C. Kurtz, S. M. Johnson, and W. Cooper. 2001. "Sources of Information on the Health Effects of Environmental Tobacco Smoke among African-American Children and Adolescents." Journal of Adolescent Health vol. 28, pp. 458-464.
Abstract: PURPOSE: To determine the common sources of information regarding the effects of smoking on health and their relationship to knowledge, attitudes, and preventative efforts regarding exposure to environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) among urban African-American children and adolescents. METHODS: All students who were enrolled in Grades 5-12 in an urban public school district located in the greater metropolitan area of Detroit, Michigan were surveyed using a structured, written questionnaire that assessed sources of information on the health effects of smoking, as well as knowledge, attitudes, and preventive efforts with respect to exposure to ETS. The primary analytic procedures utilized in the study were correlation analysis and analysis of variance. RESULTS: The African-American students surveyed in this study received information regarding the health effects of smoking from many sources, most notably television, family, and teachers. Second, students who received information on the effects of smoking on health from family and external sources (teacher, parent's friend, and religious leader) had higher overall knowledge, attitude, and preventive efforts scores than students who received information from other sources (friends, electronic media, and printed media). Finally, family influence was greater when parents were not smokers, and influenced elementary students more than middle school or high school students. CONCLUSIONS: The active involvement of teachers, religious leaders, parents, and other influential adults should be elicited in tobacco education and prevention efforts to maximize their effectiveness. [Source: ML]

Mattis, J. S. and R. J. Jagers. 2001. "A Relational Framework for the Study of Religiosity and Spirituality in the Lives of African Americans." Journal of Community Psychology vol. 29, pp. 519-539.
Abstract: Religiosity and spirituality are defining features of African American life. However, within psychology, research on African American religiosity and spirituality has proceeded without benefit of a conceptual framework. This paper labors toward a framework that examines the roles of religion and spirituality in the development and maintenance of social relationships. We review empirical research on the role of religion and spirituality in the lives of African Americans with an eye toward illuminating the affective, cognitive, and behavioral mechanisms through which religion and spirituality shape individual, family, and communal relationships across the developmental span. Future directions for quantitative and qualitative research on African American religious and spiritual life are suggested. [Source: SC]

Rucibwa, Naphtal Kaberege. 2001. "Family and Peer Influences on Sexual Attitudes and Behaviors in Black and Hispanic Adolescent Males." Dr.P.H. Thesis, Loma Linda University.
Abstract: In California, pregnancy is one of the most important social problems in adolescence. Although, the teenage pregnancy rate has been decreasing since 1991, the number of babies fathered by males younger than 20 years remains high due to frequent sexual involvement, particularly in Black and Hispanic youths. A total of 178 adolescent males, 88 Blacks and 90 Hispanics, aged 13 to 19 years were selected from a database of a 1996 Youth Survey conducted as part of the local needs assessment in neighborhoods with high rates of teen pregnancy in San Bernardino County, California. The purpose of this study was to assess the sexual attitudes and behaviors, and to investigate the relationships of family and peer factors and the dimensions of the expanded Health Belief Model with sexual involvement in the study population. Nearly 67% of the sample were sexually experienced. Of them, 71% were Blacks and 63% were Hispanics. Approximately, 36% of Blacks and 33% of Hispanics reported being sexually experienced by age 13 years. Almost 43% of Blacks and 40% of Hispanics reported that they had sexual intercourse during the month preceding the survey. Both Black and Hispanic adolescent males who had been sexually experienced reported a strong belief that sexual intercourse validates masculinity and increases a closeness to a girlfriend. Findings from the multivariate logistic regression analysis indicated that, as exposure to the family and peer risk factors increases, so does the likelihood of sexual involvement in both Black and Hispanic respondents. Black adolescent males were more likely to be influenced by having a father who had been a teen dad (OR = 2.8), whereas Hispanics were more likely to be influenced by having a sibling who had been a teen parent (OR = 9.8). Black and Hispanic respondents who perceived peer pressure as a reason to engage in sexual behaviors were twice as likely to engage in sexual behavior themselves, when compared with those who were not influenced by their peers. Two dimensions of the expanded Health Belief Model, perceived benefits of sexual intercourse and perceived self-efficacy of refusing sexual intercourse predicted sexual involvement in both ethnic groups. Results of this study can be used to design comprehensive health education and social programs that involve parents, youths, siblings, peers, church leaders, community groups, and school teachers. These programs should be culturally appropriate in order to help Black and Hispanic teens take control over their sexual behaviors. Recommendations include a longitudinal design to explore the factors that influence some adolescent males abstain from engaging in sexual behaviors until a later age. [Source: DA]

Sharpe, T. T. 2001. "Sex-for-Crack-Cocaine Exchange, Poor Black Women, and Pregnancy." Qualitative Health Research vol. 11, pp. 612-630.
Abstract: A sample of 34 poor Black women who exchanged sex for crack was screened to discover if sex-for-crack exchanges resulted in pregnancies. Ethnographic interviews were conducted with women who became pregnant this way. Out of the 34 women, 18 reported sex-for-crack pregnancies, and more than half of that number became pregnant this way more than once. Twenty-nine pregnancies were reported. Only 2 women chose to have abortions. Interview transcripts were analyzed using qualitative data analytical procedures. The following three issues shaped the women's responses to sex-for-crack pregnancies: (a) severity of crack use, (b) religious beliefs, and (c) social organization patterns within poor Black communities. The findings have implications for drug treatment and child welfare policy. [Source: SC]

Anonymous. 2000. "Innovative HIV Prevention Campaigns Focus on High-Risk Youth, Minorities: Black Ministers Step into HIV Testing Limelight, Sending Message Home." AIDS Alert vol. 15, pp. 85-88.

Belgrave, F. Z., B. Van Oss Marin, and D. B. Chambers. 2000. "Cultural, Contextual, and Intrapersonal Predictors of Risky Sexual Attitudes among Urban African American Girls in Early Adolescence." Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology vol. 6, pp. 309-322.
Abstract: The role of cultural factors in explaining sexual attitudes among African American urban girls, aged 10-13 years, was investigated in this study. The authors predicted that girls with higher school interest, family cohesion, religiosity, and behavioral self-esteem would endorse less risky sexual attitudes. Also, older girls were expected to have more risky sexual attitudes than younger girls, and girls from 1- rather than 2-parent households were expected to have more risky sexual attitudes. The authors hypothesized that ethnic identity and gender role orientations would contribute to explaining variability in sexual attitudes after controlling for contextual and intrapersonal variables. A questionnaire containing measures of the study constructs was administered to 214 girls who were participants in a substance abuse prevention program. Pretest data were used in analyses. A final regression model accounted for 23% of the variance in sexual attitudes. Age and behavioral self-esteem were significant predictors, with younger teens and teens with higher behavioral self-esteem having less risky sexual attitudes. Cultural variables contributed to explaining variation in sexual attitudes after other variables were controlled for. Higher levels of ethnic identity were associated with less risky sexual attitudes. A masculine gender role orientation was associated with more risky sexual attitudes. [Source: ML]

Brown, Lance A. 2000. "The Resocialization of African-American Male Youth through Afrocentric-Based Rites of Passage Programming: The Need for Adequate and Accurate Assessment." Ph.D. Thesis, Temple University.
Abstract: Educators, mental health professionals and religious and community leaders struggle arduously to find solutions to the problems facing today's African-American male adolescent--high homicide, suicide, dropout and unemployment rates as well as increased drug use and disproportionate involvement within the criminal justice system. The use of rites of passage programs has gained distinction as a vehicle of positive change. Little empirical evidence existed, however, to substantiate the efficacy of such programs. The purpose of this study was to create a standardized, objective measure to assess the efficacy of Afrocentric-based rites of passage programs. A 68-item assessment tool was developed based on the principles of the Nguzo Saba. The instrument was designed to measure changes within six constructs: (a) social responsibility; (b) ethnic attitudes concerning oneself; (c) ethnic attitudes concerning others; (d) gender-role expansion; (e) caring; and (f) self-reported behavior change. The newly created instrument was then used in conjunction with the Black Manhood Rites of Passage Training program to verify its ability to measure changes along these domains. Results showed that, while the ROPES instrument was judged to be highly reliable, it was largely ineffective in distinguishing between participants and non-participants of the BMT program. [Source: DA]

Cook, K. V. 2000. ""You Have to Have Somebody Watching Your Back, and If That's God, Then That's Mighty Big": The Church's Role in the Resilience of Inner-City Youth." Adolescence vol. 35, pp. 717-730.
Abstract: This study was designed to explore Freeman's (1986) finding that the institution that made the greatest contribution to male African-American youths' socioeconomic success was the church. Thirty-two African-American, Haitian-American, and Latino male and female teenagers - 16 drawn from inner-city Protestant churches and 16 comparison teenagers from the same communities - were interviewed. The interviews revealed that churched teenagers were less stressed and less likely to have psychological problems than were teenagers in the comparison group. They also appeared more likely to be living with both biological parents, less likely to have a family member on welfare, and more likely to have a job when compared with the other teenagers. They described the church as being central to their lives and as having multiple functions, many of which have been identified in the resilience literature as contributing to positive developmental outcomes. Results are interpreted in light of the transactional model, and recommendations are made, such as expanding the role of the church within these ethnic communities. [Source: SC]

Coyne, Beasley T. and V. J. Schoenbach. 2000. "The African-American Church: A Potential Forum for Adolescent Comprehensive Sexuality Education." Journal of Adolescent Health vol. 26, pp. 289-294.
Abstract: PURPOSE: To investigate the attitudes and beliefs of clergy from African-American churches towards sexuality education and the provision of sexuality education in their churches. METHODS: A pilot study was designed to survey a convenience sample of clergy leaders from African-American churches about their young adolescent members. The survey asked about priority health topics, prevalence of sexual and drug risk behavior and the clergy's desire for health education programs. The churches were located in a county (1990 population approximately 200,000, 40% African-American) in the southeastern United States. RESULTS: The respondents' highest priority issues were drugs, violence, HIV/AIDS, pregnancy and alcohol. Many (76%) had discussed one or more of these issues in church. All respondents wanted additional health seminars for their adolescents, though some clergy (30%) excluded some sexual topics (i.e., anal sex, bisexuality, homosexuality, masturbation, oral sex). Only 6% would make condoms available in their churches, but all would allow contraceptive education. CONCLUSIONS: Many African-American churches are open to including sexuality education among their health education offerings for young adolescents. The church should be considered as a potential forum for providing comprehensive sexuality education for African-American adolescents. [Source: ML]

DiIorio, C., K. Resnicow, W. N. Dudley, S. Thomas, D. T. Wang, D. F. Van Marter, B. Manteuffel, and J. Lipana. 2000. "Social Cognitive Factors Associated with Mother-Adolescent Communication About Sex." Journal of Health Communication vol. 5, pp. 41-51.
Abstract: To better understand why some mothers talk to their children about sex and others do not, we examined the role of two social cognitive variable-self-efficacy and outcome expectancies--in explaining sex-based communication. The present study was part of a larger study to test the efficacy of two HIV prevention programs for mothers and their adolescents. Mothers and their adolescents were recruited from a large community organization that serves youth who live in disadvantaged circumstances. The sample for the present study included 486 mothers who averaged 38.4 years of age (SD = 6.73). The majority were African American (97.7%), not married (66.7%), and had a high school degree (89.5%). Their adolescents ranged in age from II through 14 years of age and most were male (61.3%). The results of the analysis revealed that mothers who expressed higher levels of self-efficacy and more favorable outcomes associated with talking to their children about sex were more likely to do so. In a regression analysis, we learned that the mother's degree of efficacy beliefs, along with her expected outcomes associated with talking about sex, the importance of religious beliefs to her, and the age and sex of her adolescents were important factors associated with talking with them about sex. [Source: SC]

DiIorio, Colleen, Ken Resnicow, William N. Dudley, Stephen Thomas, Wang Dongqing Terry, Deborah F. Van Marter, Brigitte Manteuffel, and Jenny Lipana. 2000. "Social Cognitive Factors Associated with Mother--Adolescent Communication About Sex." Journal of Health Communication vol. 5, pp. 41-51.
Abstract: Examines the role of self-efficacy and outcome expectancies in explaining sex-based communication in the United States. Parental involvement in educating adolescents about sex; Important factors associated with sex communication between parents and children; Investigation of the affective component of sex-based communication. To better understand why some mothers talk to their children about sex and others do not, we examined the role of two social cognitive variables--self-efficacy and outcome expectancies--in explaining sex-based communication. The present study was part of a larger study to test the efficacy of two HI V prevention programs for mothers and their adolescents. Mothers and their adolescents were recruited from a large community organization that serves youth who live in disadvantaged circumstances. The sample for the present study included 486 mothers who averaged 38.4 years of age (SD = 6.73). The majority were African American (97.7%), not married (66.7%), and had a high school degree (89.5%). Their adolescents ranged in age from 11 through 14 years of age and most were male (61.3%). The results of the analysis revealed that mothers who expressed higher levels of self-efficacy and more favorable outcomes associated with talking to their children about sex were more likely to do so. In a regression analysis, we learned that the mother's degree of efficacy beliefs, along with her expected outcomes associated with talking about sex, the importance of religious beliefs to her, and the age and sex of her adolescents were important factors associated with talking with them about sex. [Source: AS]

Grant, K. E., J. H. O'Koon, T. H. Davis, N. A. Roache, L. M. Poindexter, M. L. Armstrong, J. A. Minden, and J. M. McIntosh. 2000. "Protective Factors Affecting Low-Income Urban African American Youth Exposed to Stress." Journal of Early Adolescence vol. 20, pp. 388-417.
Abstract: Individual (coping strategies), family (parent/child relationships), and community-based (religious involvement) variables were examined as potential protective factors for 224 low-income urban sixth- through eighth-grade African American adolescents. Each of those variables was examined as a moderator and analyses were conducted to determine whether the association between stress and psychological symptoms was attenuated for youth endorsing positive coping strategies, strong parent/child relationships, and religious involvement. Results indicated that positive relationships with father figures buffered the effects of stress on externalizing symptoms for boys and for girls; religious involvement was protective for girls but not for boys. The sole coping strategy to demonstrate a protective effect was avoidant coping, which attenuated the relation between stress and externalizing symptoms for boys. Supplemental analyses focusing on specific subsets of stressful experiences indicated that avoidant coping and social support-seeking coping accentuated the relation between daily hassles and internalizing symptoms for girls. [Source: SC]

Johnson, B. R., S. J. Jang, S. De Li, and D. Larson. 2000. "The 'Invisible Institution' and Black Youth Crime: The Church as an Agency of Local Social Control." Journal of Youth and Adolescence vol. 29, pp. 479-498.
Abstract: We examine the degree to which an individual's religious involvement significantly mediates and buffers the effects of neighborhood disorder on youth crime. To test this hypothesis, we analyzed the fifth wave of data from the National Youth Survey, focusing on black respondents given the historical as well as contemporary significance of the African-American church for black Americans. Results front estimating a series of regression models indicated that (1) the effects of neighborhood disorder on crime among black youth are partly mediated by an individual's religious involvement (measured by the frequency of attending religious services) and (2) involvement of African-American youth in religious institutions significantly buffers or interacts with the effects of neighborhood disorder on crime and, in particular serious crime. Theoretical and methodological implications of the present findings are briefly discussed. [Source: SC]

Johnson, B. R., D. B. Larson, and S. De Li. 2000. "Escaping from the Crime of Inner Cities: Church Attendance and Religious Salience among Disadvantaged Youth." Justice Quarterly vol. 17, pp. 377-391.
Abstract: With the theoretical backdrop of social disorganization and "resilient youth" perspectives, we hypothesize that individual religiosity is protective in helping at-risk youths such as those living in poor inner-city areas to escape from drug use and other illegal activities. To test this hypothesis, we draw data from an interview survey of 2,358 youth black males from tracts in poverty in Boston, Chicago, and Philadelphia, conducted in 1979 and 1980. Results from a series of multilevel analyses indicate that church attendance (the frequency of attending religious services) has significant inverse effects on nondrug illegal activities, drug use, and drug selling among disadvantaged youths. Religious salience (the perceived importance of religion in one's life), however, is not significantly linked to reductions in juvenile delinquency. we discuss the implications of our findings, focusing on individual religiosity as a potentially important protective factor for disadvantaged youths. [Source: SC]

Johnson, Cureton Lee. 2000. "The Imani Project: Challenging Missionary Baptist Men to Mentor Adolescent African-American Males." D.Min. Thesis, Drew University.
Abstract: The Imani Project was a faith-based project that recruited African-American Missionary Baptist men to mentor African-American males ages 12 to 17. The project goals were to enhance discipline, self-image and achievement among the boys. Those who recruited black men as mentors used a variety of creative strategies to train and retain the men. African-American men were critical in the process of helping black male adolescents survive and thrive in a difficult environment. Educational consultant Jawanza Kunjufu describes image as "a likeness symbol, mental picture..." (Developing Positive Self-images and Discipline in Black Children). Self-image, in turn, became a powerful tool toward developing discipline and high expectations for achievement among the boys. Imani is a Swahili word for faith. Jesus Christ was Imani's supreme role model. Just as Jesus restored the sight of the blind man (Mark 8:22-26), He helped the men and boys to envision manhood positively. A spiritual restoration of hope took place in Imani. Christian men poured their lives into boys, thereby moving them toward authentic manhood. Imani produced significant positive transformation for the boys, the mentors, the parents/guardians and for the congregation. [Source: DA]

McClure, Regina M. 2000. "Attitudinal Correlates of Abortion among Female Adolescent Offenders." Ph.D. Thesis, Fuller Theological Seminary School of Psychology.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was twofold, to examine: (a) the association between age and the percentage of pregnancies ending in abortion, and (b) the relationships between abortion attitudes, and religious participation and unwanted sexual experiences. This study is important in that it utilized a nonclinical, at-risk sample of Black and Latina female adolescents and measured a large, diverse group of demographic and risk variables. One hundred female adolescent offenders were administered a questionnaire to assess (a) number of pregnancies, (b) number of abortions, (c) abortion attitudes, and (d) frequency of religious participation. The Sexual Abuse Exposure Questionnaire measured exposure to unwanted sexual experiences. A correlational approach produced inconclusive results; however, demographic characteristics identified for this at-risk group can inform pregnancy prevention and options counseling. [Source: DA]

Miller, Jamie L. 2000. "Understanding Achievement Attribution and Achievement Motivation among African-American Youth: Racism, Racial Socialization, and Spirituality." Ph.D. Thesis, California School of Professional Psychology - Los Angeles.
Abstract: High school dropout rates among ethnic minority youth remain disproportionately high. Researchers indicated that less education is associated with poorer health outcomes, alienation, powerlessness and poorer occupational functioning later in life, specifically among historically oppressed groups. The purpose of this study was to examine ecological and cultural factors such as, experiences of racism, racial socialization and spirituality on achievement attribution and general achievement motivation among African-American youth. The participants were African-American students (N = 101) that attended high school in South Los Angeles. The sample reportedly came from working and middle class families. Fifty-four percent were 14 or 15 years old. The participants and their families frequently attended church. The following measures were administered: The Personal and Group Racism Experiences scales of the Racism and Life Experiences Scales (RaLES; Harrell, 1996); a modified version of the Teenager Experience of Racial Socialization Scale (TERS; Stevenson, 1996); the Spirituality Scale (SS; Jagers 1996); the Intellectual Achievement Responsibility Questionnaire (IAR; Crandall, Katkovsky & Crandall, 1965), and the General Achievement Motivation Scale (GAM; Miller 1996). An eight-item background questionnaire was also administered to participants. The predictions in this study were partially confirmed. Racism, racial socialization, and spirituality significantly related to achievement attribution and achievement motivation in different ways. As predicted, when racism increased, internal attribution for success and failure, and general achievement motivation decreased. Proactive racial socialization was a positive predictor of internal attribution for success and general achievement motivation. Contrary to the direction predicted, proactive messages were inversely related to internal attribution for failure. Further, as reactive racial socialization increased, internal attribution for success decreased, which was also contrary to the direction predicted. Spirituality was positively related to internal attribution for success and failure but not to general achievement motivation. In addition, other notable findings emerged among achievement attribution, racial socialization, and worship variables. The findings suggest that ecological and cultural aspects of academic achievement among some African-American youth should not be ignored. Further, intervention programs aimed to improve academic achievement and attribution issues among African-American youth should incorporate proactive racial socialization messages and spirituality discussions. Recommendations for future research are suggested. [Source: DA]

Miller, K. S., R. Forehand, and B. A. Kotchick. 2000. "Adolescent Sexual Behavior in Two Ethnic Minority Groups: A Multisystem Perspective." Adolescence vol. 35, pp. 313-333.
Abstract: Adolescents are at high risk for a number of negative health consequences associated with early and unsafe sexual activity, such as infection with HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, as well as unintended pregnancy. In the present study, a multisystem model was applied to one adolescent sexual behavior, penile-vaginal intercourse. Nine hundred seven Black and Hispanic adolescents (aged 14 to 17 years) and their mothers were interviewed. Factors from three systems (self, family, and extrafamilial) that are influential in the lives of adolescents were evaluated using four outcome measures. Factors from most or all systems emerged as predictors of each outcome measure. A cumulative risk index suggested a linear relationship between the number of systems identified as being at risk and indicators of adolescent sexual behavior. The implications for prevention are discussed. [Source: ML]

Parker, Shandowyn L. 2000. "Family Environment and Sexual Risk Behaviors among African American Adolescent Females." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
Abstract: Many interventions have addressed risk-taking behavior as they pertain to sexual risk behaviors. Such interventions have mainly addressed the influence of peers and the environment in adolescent risk-taking behavior. Few studies have addressed the role of family environment in adolescent risk-taking behavior. The aims of the study were to develop a measure to assess family environment, to evaluate the psychometric properties of the family environment measure, and to assess associations between family environment constructs and outcome variables, such as condom use, sexually transmitted diseases history, drug use history, and parental communication. The study assessed 4 constructs of family environment: family cohesion, family conflict, family expressiveness, and family moral religious emphasis. The findings from this study showed that family cohesion was a significant predictor of healthy behaviors among African American adolescent females 14-18 years old residing in Jefferson County, Alabama. [Source: DA]

Rivers, Monica Corbitt. 2000. "Resisting Risk: The Protective Roles of Family Environment and Personal Resilience among African-American Adolescent Girls Living in Low-Income Neighborhoods." Ph.D. Thesis, Vanderbilt University.
Abstract: Personal resilience was examined as a mediator of the influence of specific family environment variables (cohesion, control, achievement-orientation, moral-religious emphasis, and conflict) on selected developmental outcomes (academic achievement, alcohol and tobacco use, sexual behavior, and delinquent behavior) in African-American early adolescent girls. The sample included 106 10 to 12 year old African-American girls living in economically disadvantaged neighborhoods. Findings provided no evidence of a direct effect of family environment on developmental outcomes; therefore, the hypothesized mediational model could not be tested. Additional analyses, however, revealed significant direct effects of personal resilience on two developmental outcomes under investigation, alcohol and tobacco use and delinquent behavior. Possible explanations for the findings and suggestions for future research are discussed. [Source: DA]

Rotheram-Borus, M. J. 2000. "Expanding the Range of Interventions to Reduce HIV among Adolescents." AIDS vol. 14, pp. S33-S40.
Abstract: Objective: Structural interventions are identified to reduce adolescents' HIV risk. Method: The goals, strategies, approaches, and delivery sites of adolescent HIV prevention programs are reviewed. Results: In addition to reducing sexual activity and substance use, HIV prevention programs may also reduce adolescents' HIV risk by: decreasing poverty; ensuring access to HIV testing, healthcare, general social skills training, and employment opportunities; and requiring community service for students. Adolescent HIV prevention programs do not currently utilize diverse modalities (computers, videotapes, television, telephone groups, computerized telephones) or sites (parents' workplaces, religious organizations, self-help networks, primary healthcare clinics) for delivering interventions. Diversifying current approaches to HIV prevention include: economic development programs; mandating delivery of programs at key developmental milestones (e.g, childbirth, marriage) and settings (school-based clinics, condom availability programs); securing changes in legislative and funding policies through ballot initiatives or lawsuits; and privatizing prevention activities. Conclusions: To implement structural HIV interventions for adolescents requires researchers to shift their community norms regarding the value of innovation, adopt designs other than randomized controlled trials, expand their theoretical models, and adopt strategies used by lawyers, private enterprise, and lobbyists. [Source: SC]

Sanders, Mavis G. and Jerald R. Herting. 2000. "Gender and the Effects of School, Family, and Church Support on the Academic Achievement of African-American Urban Adolescents." Pp. 141-161 in Schooling Students Placed at Risk: Research, Policy, and Practice in the Education of Poor and Minority Adolescents., edited by Mavis G. Sanders. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Abstract: This study examines the effects of gender on the relationships between institutional support, school-related attitudes and behaviors, and academic achievement for 826 African-American adolescents in an urban school district in the southeastern US. The results of regression and interview analyses suggest that the school, family, and church simultaneously influence academic achievement through their effects on academic self-concept and school behavior, even when controlling on background characteristics of students. Differences between the male and female populations exist. These differences appear to be related primarily to the attributes female African-American adolescents bring to school relative to males (e.g., more parental support or more church involvement), as opposed to strong differences in the effects of these attributes on the attitudinal and behavioral variables tested, and their relationship to academic achievement. This study's findings are discussed relative to improving the educational experience of male and female African-American urban youth through school, family, and community partnerships. [Source: PI]

Smetana, J. G. 2000. "Middle-Class African American Adolescents' and Parents' Conceptions of Parental Authority and Parenting Practices: A Longitudinal Investigation." Child Development vol. 71, pp. 1672-1686.
Abstract: Conceptions of parental authority and ratings of parental rules and decision making were examined longitudinally among 82 middle-class African American adolescents and their parents (82 mothers and 52 fathers), who were divided into two groups according to family income. Adolescents were, on average, 13.14 years of age at Time 1 and 15.05 years of age at Time 2. Nearly all adolescents and parents affirmed parents' legitimate authority to regulate (and children's obligation to comply with) rules regarding moral, conventional, prudential, friendship, and multifaceted issues, but they were more equivocal in their judgments regarding personal issues. With age, adolescents increasingly judged personal issues to be beyond the bounds of legitimate parental authority, but judgments differed by family income. Adolescents from upper income families rejected parents' legitimate authority to regulate personal issues more at Time 1 than did adolescents from middle income families, but no differences were found at Time 2. Authority to regulate adolescents' behavior did not extend to other adults or to schools, churches, and the law. With adolescents' increasing age, African American families became less restrictive in regulating prudential, friendship, multifaceted, and personal issues. Adolescents', mothers', and fathers' judgments demonstrated significant continuity over time, but few cross- or within-generation associations in judgments were found. Conceptions of legitimate parental authority at Time 1 were found to predict family rules at Time 2. [Source: ML]

Smith, Tamie L. 2000. "Pre-Teen and Early Adolescent African American Girls' Attitudes toward Teen Sexual Behavior and Pregnancy." Ph.D. Thesis, Howard University.
Abstract: Within the body of literature on the attitudes and perceptions of teenage sexual behavior and pregnancy, there is a paucity of empirical data on pre-teen and early adolescent African American girls from high risk communities. This study contributed to closing the gap by providing both quantitative and qualitative data on a sample of girls' sexual attitudes and perceptions as they relate to a variety of factors. A survey method was used for the quantitative portion of the study which consisted of 197 pre-teenaged African American girls from a socially and economically disadvantaged community in Washington, D.C. Step-wise regression analyses were used to build a model from four variables, family closeness, degree of peer pressure and peer intimacy, and frequency of church attendance in order to predict the age the girls perceived acceptable for becoming sexually active and the age perceived acceptable for bearing a child. Partial support of the hypothesized model was found. The outcome variables frequency of church attendance, and peer intimacy in an inverse direction, were the only variables that predicted the age the girls' perceived acceptable for becoming sexually active. Peer intimacy alone inversely predicted the age perceived acceptable to have a baby. A logistic regression analysis was applied to the four predictor variables to determine their relationship to persons whom girls would involve in determining their readiness to become sexually active. Family closeness was unexpectedly found to predict the boyfriend as the person who would be involved in the determination of the girls' sexual readiness. Frequency data were reported from other single item questions that elicited the girls' attitudes and opinions on a variety of issues related to teen sexual behavior and pregnancy. The qualitative data were collected from interviews of a sample of 23 girls who participated in the quantitative study. The interviews elicited the girls' attitudes, beliefs and perceptions about a variety of topics and themes related to teenage sexual dynamics, pregnancy and contraception. Related topics were reported including the quality of life in the girls' communities, their attitudes toward school, the nature and quality of family and peer relationships, and the role of religion in their lives. Three theoretical frameworks were utilized in this study: (1) family systems, (2) the relational model of female development, and (3) Erikson's (1963) theory of psychosocial development. Implications for professional practice and education are discussed and suggestions for future research are offered. [Source: DA]

Whitaker, D. J., K. S. Miller, and L. F. Clark. 2000. "Reconceptualizing Adolescent Sexual Behavior: Beyond Did They or Didn't They?" Family Planning Perspectives vol. 32, pp. 111-117.
Abstract: Context: Adolescent sexual behavior is typically studied as a dichotomy: Adolescents have had sex or they have not. Broadening this view would lead to a greater understanding of teenagers' sexual behavior. Methods: Interview data from 907 high school students in Alabama, New York and Puerto Rico were used to examine the relationships between sexual experience and a variety of social, psychological and behavioral variables. Four groups of teenagers are compared: those who did not anticipate initiating sex in the next year (delayers), those who anticipated initiating sex in the next year (anticipators), those who had had one sexual partner (singles) and those who had had two or more partners (multiples). Results: Compared with delayers, anticipators reported more alcohol use and marijuana use; poorer psychological health; riskier peer behaviors; and looser ties to family, school and church. Similarly, multiples reported more alcohol and marijuana use, riskier peer behaviors and looser ties to family and school than singles. Risk behaviors, peer behaviors, family variables, and school and church involvement showed a linear trend across the four categories of sexual behavior. Conclusions: The traditional sex-no sex dichotomy obscures differences among sexually inexperienced teenagers and among adolescents who have had sex. Prevention efforts must be tailored to the specific needs of teenagers with differing sexual experiences and expectations, and must address the social and psychological context in which sexual experiences occur. [Source: SC]

Wyatt, Shelby Thomas. 2000. "Measuring the Effectiveness of an Afrocentric Male Mentoring Program with Adolescent African American Males." Ed.D. Thesis, Northern Illinois University.
Abstract: The adolescent African American male is an entity that is fertile ground for research on the social, cultural, spiritual, psychological, and personal factors that comprise their existence. These factors can have a positive or negative effect on the developmental process of this group. These effects are evident in the educational accomplishments and criminal and mortality rates of young Black males. Research on the influences of male mentoring with young Black males suggests that an Afrocentric approach works better with this population. This study explored the effectiveness of an Afrocentric male mentoring program with adolescent African American males. This quantitative research study measured the treatment effect of an Afrocentric male mentoring program on the self-concept, communal responsibility, and academic progress of adolescent African American males. Participants were upper elementary and high school students of the Chicago Public School System. The study occurred over a six-month period. Two Afrocentric Based instruments and one general measure of self-concept were used to analyze the data. Recommendations are provided for future research of this topic. The literature is limited on reporting the outcome effects of an Afrocentric male mentoring program and the effectiveness of Black psychology. One rationale for conducting this research study is to promote quantifiable data regarding the effects of male mentoring with adolescent African American males. This study sought to provide data to prove that male mentoring utilizing the principles of the Nguzo Saba will be effective in assisting adolescent African American males with their transition to adulthood. In addition to providing more data on the phenomenon of Afrocentric male mentoring programs, this research study provided an opportunity for the tenets of the Nguzo Saba to be explored. The Nguzo Saba is Kiswahili for the seven moral principles that serve as the foundation of Black psychology. It was developed by Dr. Maulana Karenga. in response to a need expressed by some Black psychologists to create psychological techniques and understandings that are supportive to the needs of people in the African diaspora. Some significance was found in the area of self-concept. This significance suggests that the intervention of adult Black male mentoring had an effect on the self-concept of adolescent African American males. The collection of data will provide an opportunity for statistical credibility to be established regarding Black psychological therapies, which are often considered controversial by mainstream therapists. [Source: DA]

Barbarin, Oscar A. 1999. "Do Parental Coping, Involvement, Religiosity, and Racial Identity Mediate Children's Psychological Adjustment to Sickle Cell Disease?" Journal of Black Psychology vol. 25, pp. 391-426.
Abstract: Many African Americans with sickle cell disease (SCD) also experience significant economic hardship. Yet, few studies of the psychosocial effects of SCD employ designs robust enough to control socioeconomic factors. This study compares the functioning of families with SCD to that of healthy controls matched for race and SES. Child Ss (aged 5-18 yrs) included 77 children with SCD, 28 siblings of children with SCD, and 74 children who had neither an illness nor siblings with an illness. A total of 71 parents of SCD children and 50 control parents also participated in the study. Results show that in general, functioning within SCD and control families did not differ. However parents granted less autonomy to, and were less involved in the schooling of children with SCD. Overall, SCD had a greater impact on children's social and academic competence than on their emotional functioning. However adolescents with SCD and their siblings were at greater risk for mental health difficulties than were controls. The more SCD interfered with living normally, the greater the risk of psychological dysfunction. Importantly, emotional well-being in parents moderated the adverse effects of SCD on children. Similarly, racial consciousness, religiosity, and emotional support enhanced parental coping. [Source: PI]

Brega, Angela G. and Lerita M. Coleman. 1999. "Effects of Religiosity and Racial Socialization on Subjective Stigmatization in African-American Adolescents." Journal of Adolescence vol. 22, pp. 223-242.
Abstract: The direct effects of religiosity and racial socialization on subjective stigmatization among 50 African-American adolescents were investigated. A stigma is a characteristic about which others hold negative attitudes and stereotypes. Subjective stigmatization measures the degree to which an individual internalizes such negative attitudes and stereotypes toward a social group of which he or she is a member. Participants who showed strong commitment to the church were more destigmatized than were participants who did not. Further, participants who received racial socialization messages stemming from a single "primary" category were more destigmatized than those who did not. Unexpectedly, the more racial socialization messages participants received, the more self-stigmatized they were. The importance of religiosity and racial socialization in the lives of African-American adolescents are discussed. [Source: SS]

Brunswick, Ann F. 1999. "Structural Strain: An Ecological Paradigm for Studying African American Drug Use." Drugs and Society vol. 14, pp. 5-19.
Abstract: Suggests that drug involvement differences in the African American community are best explained by heterogeneity in degrees of success in & attachment to mainstream social institutions (family, church, schools, workplaces). These considerations predominate in structural strain theory. Here, an ecological model is used to operationalize the theory & posit three different interlinking levels of social influence on individual drug use behavior: social structural, institutional, & interpersonal networks (representing macro-, exo-, & microsystem, respectively). Findings are presented from a 25-year study conducted with one community-representative cohort of African American youth in Harlem, New York City, that supports the importance of the structural strain premise in explaining African American drug use patterns. An example of study measures, arrayed according to the ecological paradigm, is provided, & its utility is demonstrated in enumerating sources of error that have led to incomplete & sometimes contradictory findings regarding African American drug use. [Source: SA]

Epstein, J. A., C. Williams, G. J. Botvin, T. Diaz, and M. Ifill-Williams. 1999. "Psychosocial Predictors of Cigarette Smoking among Adolescents Living in Public Housing Developments." Tobacco Control vol. 8, pp. 45-52.
Abstract: BACKGROUND: Adolescents residing in low-income public housing developments in inner-city regions may be particularly vulnerable to a variety of risk factors associated with cigarette smoking. OBJECTIVE: To elucidate the aetiology of cigarette smoking among adolescents living in public housing developments. DESIGN, SETTING, AND SUBJECTS: We examined predictors of smoking from four domains: background characteristics, social influences, behavioural control, and psychosocial characteristics using a sample of seventh graders (mean age 12.9 years) who reside in public housing developments in New York City (n = 624). The addresses of participants in a larger investigation of the aetiology and prevention of smoking were checked to determine if they lived in one of 335 public housing developments in New York City. All participants living in public housing developments were included in the current study. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: African-American and Hispanic students completed questionnaires about their cigarette use, social pressures to smoke, smoking attitudes, smoking knowledge, and smoking resistance skills. Students also provided information on demographic and behavioural control (such as church and school attendance). RESULTS: Logistic regression analyses indicated that social influences from friends and family members predicted smoking. Psychosocial characteristics such as advertising resistance skills, anti-smoking attitudes, and refusal skills lowered the odds of smoking. CONCLUSIONS: These findings suggest that smoking prevention approaches targeted at these young people should increase their awareness of social pressures to smoke, correct misperceptions about the prevalence of smoking among friends, and teach relevant psychosocial skills. [Source: ML]

Fortson, Darryl L. 1999. "Stemming the Tide of Teen Suicides." Emerge vol. 10.
Abstract: Fortson comments on the problem of suicide among black teens and discusses the nature of teen suicide. He links suicide to depression, dependency deprivation, and household guns. He suggests that parents talk to teens about disappointments in their lives, and the pain that suicide inflicts on parents. He also suggests leading children to follow some religion. [Source: BS]

McCoy Harrison, Carmen Jernell. 1999. "The Black Church: A Support for African-American Teenage Girls." Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Iowa.
Abstract: This study examined the value of the Black church in supporting and nurturing African-American teenage girls. Specifically, two research questions were addressed: (1) What messages do African-American girls receive from their church regarding the value of education? (2) What is the nature of support African-American girls draw from their church involvement that contributes to their school experiences? Through the use of a qualitative case study methodology and participant observations, five African-American girls who were members of a Midwestern Black church were interviewed on two separate occasions. I spent one full day at their schools, attended regular Sunday morning worship services, Sunday school classes, youth Bible studies, and other church events for a period of seven months. I also conducted interviews with church staff, mothers, and teachers. Results of the study suggest that African-American girls receive positive and supportive messages regarding the value of education, and this support comes in the form of Sunday school and Bible study, the concept of church as family, and the girls' personal relationship with God. This study found that girls who attend church regularly relied on their spiritual teachings to help them make important decisions, study for exams, and maintain Christian attitudes during challenging situations. [Source: DA]

Reddick-Gibson, Franki Louise. 1999. "An Evaluation of the B.U.I.L.D. Rites of Passage Program on the Attitudes and Behaviors of Adolescent African-American Males." Thesis, University of Sarasota, Sarasota.
Abstract: Historically, African-American males have had no organized system in place to mark the passing from adolescence to adulthood. The absence of this system has often resulted in a lack of historical knowledge, cultural pride and spiritual direction, which may manifest itself as an increase in participation in self-destructive behaviors, such as truancy and poor school performance. The Birth of Unique Individuals Lessens Delinquency (B.U.I.L.D.) Rites of Passage Program has been designed to provide a systematic, comprehensive, three-phase, prevention/intervention program that will utilize a holistic, Afrocentric foundation to instill a sense of God, self, history, and community. B.U.I.L.D. will stress a three-fold goal. The immediate goal will be an increase in information that will result in positive attitude and behavior changes. The intermediate goal will be an application of information that results in a mindset change. The ultimate goal will be a knowledge base that results in permanent conduct change. The evaluation sample consisted of 37 African-American males between the ages of 8 and 14 years, in school grades 2 through 10, who live in inner-city Philadelphia neighborhoods. After piloting the surveys on a similar sample, each boy was given the pre-test survey, and 1 week later, the post-test survey. Changes were documented in the areas of cultural pride, spiritual commitment, knowledge of African history, and school attendance and performance. The boys' growth and development was also assessed based on a personal interview, as well as structured interviews, with teacher-mentors, parents, siblings, and peers. Quantitative methods were employed to describe the data from the pre- and post-tests, and qualitative methods were used to describe the data derived from the interviews and observations. The findings suggested overall improvements in the areas of cultural pride, personal spiritual commitment, knowledge of African history, and school attendance and performance for the participants who completed the B.U.I.L.D. Rites of Passage Program. [Source: PI]

Smiley, Rosalie. 1999. "A Study of the Factors Influencing the Use of Drugs and Alcohol by African-American Adolescent Females." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh.
Abstract: Adolescents are currently using licit and illicit drugs at an increasing rate and are beginning at a younger age. Adolescents are also often using multiple drugs simultaneously. Although a number of studies have addressed adolescent substance abuse and its consequences, there is a paucity of research that has investigated the substance usage of African-American teenaged women. This study of the adolescent experiences of fifty-one African-American women in recovery investigated five general areas: (1) What factors contributed to the respondents' ongoing drug and alcohol use during adolescence? (2) What could have prevented or inhibited their ongoing drug and alcohol use when they were teens? (3) What led the respondents to enter treatment? What aspects of treatment were most helpful? Least helpful? (4) What could prevent African American adolescent females from initiating drug and alcohol use? From becoming involved in ongoing drug and alcohol use? (5) What would be most effective in getting African-American adolescent females to enter treatment? What services should be provided to them? The non-randomly selected respondents were interviewed using an instrument containing open- and closed-ended items, developed by the researcher. The findings from this study present a complex picture of the life experiences of these respondents. The women interviewed identified a number of factors as contributing to their initial and ongoing drug and alcohol use, including families' drug and alcohol use; peers' use of drugs and alcohol; lack of connection to social institutions, especially the church; and the availability and accessibility of drug and alcohol in their homes, school and communities. Basing their recommendations on what they perceived to be the unique vulnerabilities of African American adolescent females, respondents suggested various actions that families, schools, and communities could take to deter adolescent substance involvement. [Source: DA]

Brown, Lee R. 1998. "Formulating Self-Esteem through God in African-American Male Youth." Thesis, United Theological Seminary, Dayton.
Abstract: This project was designed to address the need of establishing self motivation in African-American Male Youth in Springdale Baptist Church and the surrounding area in Memphis, Tennessee. Six sessions of learning experiences were developed and implemented with a group of men and boys to enable the men to lead discussions on spiritual formation, family responsibility, conflict resolution, and leadership development. The total training model included discussion groups, lectures, and field trips. Results of the model were evaluated by pre- and post test questionnaires which showed positive development in youth images of themselves. [Source: PI]

Conley, O. Stephen. 1998. "Early Sexual Onset: A Study of the Relationship between Social and Psychological Factors in the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health." Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to utilize the National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent Health (Wave I) to develop models to predict the onset of sexual intercourse before the age of 16, the experience of forced sexual intercourse for females and the choice to have multiple sexual partners with both genders. One cross-sectional wave of the public use dataset from this large nationally representative study (Add Health) was analyzed. Social and psychological variables were tested through logistic regressions and descriptive statistics. Findings demonstrated that 41.5% of male adolescents and 37.3% of female adolescents in the sample had experienced sexual intercourse. More than half of the nonvirgin subjects (53.1%) reported beginning sexual intercourse by the age of 16. Initial predictive models found that black males who report having trouble with teachers ($p < .01$), early dating onset ($p < .05$) and use cigarettes ($p < .05$) are more likely to experience sexual intercourse prior to the age of 16 (N = 563). A second model found black males more likely to experience intercourse prior to age 16 if they report having trouble with teachers ($p < .01$), early dating onset ($p < .05$), use cigarettes ($p < .05$), see religion as very important in their lives ($p < .05$), have a mother who has received welfare payments ($p < .05$), and began early use of marijuana ($p < .05$).When all races and genders were assessed in model predicting sexual intercourse before age 16, ($N = 5,702$) several factors showed significance at the $p < .01$ level. These included early dating onset, failure of one or more of four core subjects, being African American, using cigarettes, having a mother who has received welfare, having been expelled from school, females experiencing forced sexual intercourse, father's attitude that is accepting of adolescents having sex with a steady girlfriend or boyfriend, use of alcohol outside of the family, early marijuana use, trouble with teachers and not feeling loved and wanted. African American youth were more than three times as likely as other races to experience sexual intercourse under age 16. Young women who had been forced to have sexual intercourse were more than three times as likely as those who had not been forced to experience sexual intercourse under age 16. A model (N = 3,080) predicting females who are forced to have sexual intercourse found significance at the $p < .01$ level for the following factors: early dating onset, African American, no residential father in the home, cigarette use, being expelled from school, use of alcohol outside of the family, and not feeling loved and wanted. Conversely, a model predicting males who force females to have intercourse found highest significance if there was no father in the home, the mother had received welfare, and parents were accepting of adolescent sexual intercourse with a steady girlfriend. Multiple partners were predicted in the final logistic regression model (N = 1,400) if the subject was male, had friends who used cigarettes, used alcohol outside of the family, had been dishonest with parents about whereabouts and for females, if they had experienced forced sexual intercourse. Implications of the findings for program and policy development are discussed, and recommendations are made for additional research with the Add Health public use dataset. [Source: DA]

Frison, S. L., J. L. Wallander, and D. Browne. 1998. "Cultural Factors Enhancing Resilience and Protecting against Maladjustment in African American Adolescents with Mild Mental Retardation." American Journal of Mental Retardation vol. 102, pp. 613-626.
Abstract: Researchers have found elevated risk for maladjustment associated with being an African American adolescent in an urban environment as well as being an individual with mental retardation. The culturally relevant factors of ethnic identification, intergenerational support, and church support were investigated in relation to high risk exposure on maladjustment in 147 urban African American adolescents enrolled in EMR special education classes. Maladjustment was measured with both self- and parent-report. Risk exposure was measured in the personal, social, and community domains. Results indicate that presence of cultural factors were associated with better adjustment generally. Furthermore, ethnic identification appeared to protect adolescents exposed to high-risk conditions against experiencing significantly elevated maladjustment. Implications of culture on intervention and prevention were discussed. [Source: ML]

Henderson, Joyce T. 1998. Why African American Youth Are Attracted to Non-Christian/Non- Traditional Religions & Sects. Bloomington: 1st Books Library.

Mason, Henry L. 1998. "A Counseling Intervention Model for Ministry to African American Male Juvenile Offenders: Ages 10-17." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project proposes and designs a model of counseling ministry for African American juvenile offenders, testing it with 12 young people between the ages of 10 and 17. Through biblical teaching, counseling, and prayer, these young people experience rehabilitation and healing on different levels. Future efforts will involve family members with the juveniles enrolled in the program. [Source: RI]

McCubbin, Hamilton I., Wm Michael Fleming, Anne I. Thompson, Paul Neitman, Kelly M. Elver, and Sue Ann Savas. 1998. "Resiliency and Coping in "at Risk" African-American Youth and Their Families." Pp. 287-328 in Resiliency in African-American Families. Resiliency in Families Series, Vol. 3, edited by Hamilton I. McCubbin and Elizabeth A. Thompson. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Inc.
Abstract: (from the chapter) Examined the relative importance of both youth coping and family coping repertoires as predictors of youth offenders' ability to recover from adversity. 821 African-American youth (abused, neglected, or adjudicated delinquents) in Boysville of Michigan completed a youth coping index and their parents completed a family coping index. It is noted that positive changes in youth coping efforts directed at spiritual and personal development and negative changes (reduction) in youth coping efforts directed at incendiary communication play an important part in predicting successful completion of the Boysville program and successful post-treatment adaptation 12 mo later. When both changes in youth and family coping are considered, the highest accuracy in predicting successful and unsuccessful program completion, post-program adaptation at 3 mo, and post-program adaptation at 12 mo. [Source: PI]

McDuffie, Kathleen Yvette. 1998. "Social Support, Community Involvement, and Ethnic Identity Development in African-American Adolescents with Mild Cognitive Disabilities." Thesis, University of Alabama at Birmingham.
Abstract: This study examined influences of ethnic identity development in a sample of 188 African American adolescents (14-17 years). Recruited from Educable Mentally Retarded (EMR) special education programs, the boys and girls provided information about ethnic identity and social support from parents and peers. In addition, the children were administered the Information subscale of the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 3rd edition (WISC-III), to assess cognitive ability. Their parents provided information concerning church support and involvement, as well as demographic information. The primary hypothesis was that there would be differences in ethnic identity development related to general development (i.e., cognitive and chronological). It was expected that more developed adolescents would have greater ethnic identity development. The research also evaluated gender differences with respect to ethnic identity. Based on past research, gender differences were not expected. Finally, a relationship between social support (i.e., parent, peer, and church) and church involvement and ethnic identity development was expected, in that adolescents with more social support would have greater ethnic identity development. The results indicate that cognitive ability predicted one component of ethnic identity, namely, affirmation-belonging. However, chronological age did not predict ethnic identity development. There were gender differences in ethnic identity development. Boys reported higher on all ethnic identity domains. Finally, parental support predicted overall ethnic identity, affirmation-belonging, and ethnic identity achievement. Peer support only predicted overall ethnic identity. Church support and involvement did not predict ethnic identity development. These findings add to the existing literature addressing influences of ethnic identity development in general and are ground breaking in the study of ethnic identity development in children with disabilities. [Source: PI]

Mitchell, David D. 1998. Black Theology and Youth at Risk. New York: P. Lang.

Smith, James Garfield, III. 1998. "Reversing an Environment of Mistrust: Urban Church Ministries Which Create Positive Relationships between Police and African American Youth." D.Min. Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project was designed with the aim of creating positive relationships between the police of Easton, Maryland and African American youths (ages 10-16) who attend Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church (AMEC), Easton, Maryland. The goals were met through four sermons, four teaching sessions, and the use of mentors. The preaching, teaching, and mentoring focused on providing the youth with the skills that would enable them to protect themselves against violent crimes and acts of police brutality. The model was evaluated through the use of a questionnaire, and the results show that the youth developed positive relationships with the African American police. [Source: DA]

Ark, Pamela Dale. 1997. "Health Risk Behaviors and Coping Strategies of African- American Sixth Graders." Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Tennessee Center For the Health Sciences, Memphis.
Abstract: Children, eleven to fourteen years, experience times of lifestyle change. Children can develop health behaviors that could result in illness and premature death. The reduction of risk behaviors among children, addressed in the Healthy People 2000 (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1990) goals, recommended education regarding injury prevention, physical activity. and healthy nutritional choices. Study purposes included: examine height, weight, and blood pressure measurements; investigate health risk behaviors and coping strategies; and determine relationships among physiological variables, health behaviors, and coping strategies. Health behaviors were measured by a version of 1995 CDC Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), a 70 item survey on unintentional injuries; tobacco, alcohol, and drug use; dietary behavior; and physical activity. Coping strategies were measured by Ryan-Wenger's Schoolagers Coping Strategies Inventory (SCSI), a 26 item survey on frequency and effectiveness of coping strategies. The conceptual framework guiding the study was Neuman's Systems Model (1995). Client variables included: physiological: height, weight, and blood pressure measurements; psychological: coping strategies; sociocultural: living in proximity to inner city school; developmental: age and gender; and spiritual: prayer as a coping strategy. The sample was 173 African American sixth graders, ages 11 to 14, females (n = 98) and males (n = 75), from five inner city schools with written parental consent. There was no statistical difference by gender in body mass index. Statistical differences were found by gender with more males than females reporting physical fighting. Older males than females, ages 12 and 13, reported tobacco and marijuana use. There was zero reported use of cocaine and no statistical differences by gender on alcohol, dietary behaviors, or physical activity. Coping strategies (sample mean was 19.4) reported more often were prayer (75 percent) and watch television or listen to music (75 percent). Multiple regression showed interaction effects of unintentional injuries with gender and SCSI effectiveness scale. There were statistical differences in means between females and males, ages 12 and 13, suggesting need for further investigation of coping strategies. Further investigation of coping strategies among sixth graders and their family in relationship with the environment is recommended to determine coping strategies of the family unit. [Source: DA]

August Prudhomme, Nellie R. 1997. "The Relationship between Family Functioning and Female Adolescent Sexual Behavior." D.N.S. Thesis, Louisiana State University Medical Ctr. in New Orleans S. of Nursing.
Abstract: A descriptive exploratory design was used to examine the relationship of sociodemographic characteristics, family functioning levels, family and community socioeconomic status, and peer relationships to adolescent sexual behavior. Four questionnaires (Demographic Profile, Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale, Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale, and an Index of Peer Relations) were administered to 101 African American female adolescent volunteers. Means, standard deviations, and frequency distributions were used to describe sociodemographic characteristics of the subjects, and frequency distributions were used to describe the sexual activity of the subjects. The associations between the dependent and independent variables were examined, using the Chi-Square statistic, Fisher's Exact test, and t-tests. Results indicated an association between age, neighborhood socioeconomic status, church attendance, grade point average, educational aspirations, and family cohesion levels and sexual activity status among the subjects. Although the differences fell short of statistical significance, trends related to parent's home ownership, family types, parent-adolescent communication, and single-parent household structures were consistent with those of earlier investigations. Implications for nursing include assessing family functioning and the interrelationships of family members and the adolescent in the family setting. The results of this assessment can be used to guide clinical programs for counseling and strengthening families with adolescents. [Source: DA]

Belgrave, Faye Z., Tiffany G. Townsend, Valerie R. Cherry, and Dellena M. Cunningham. 1997. "The Influence of an Africentric Worldview and Demographic Variables on Drug Knowledge, Attitudes, and Use among African American Youth." Journal of Community Psychology vol. 25, pp. 421-433.
Abstract: Examined the influence of Africentric values, spirituality, and demographic variables on drug knowledge, attitudes, and use. Participants were 189 4th- and 5th-graders (83 males and 106 females; aged 8.5-13 yrs) attending public schools. Measures of Africentric values (i.e., Collective Work/Responsibility, Cooperative Economics, and Self-Determination), spirituality, age, and whether or not the child resided in a 2- or 1-parent household were obtained. The results of regression analyses indicated that Collective Work/Responsibility and Cooperative Economics were significant predictors of attitudes toward drugs. Collective Work/Responsibility and spirituality were significant predictors of perceived drug harmfulness. Age and spirituality were significant predictors of drug usage. Age was the only significant predictor of drug knowledge. The Collective Work/Responsibility subscale was the strongest predictor of drug outcomes. The implications for using Africentric prevention approaches for decreasing risk factors and increasing protective factors for drug use among African American youth are discussed. [Source: PI]

Calvert, W. J. 1997. "Protective Factors within the Family, and Their Role in Fostering Resiliency in African American Adolescents." Journal of Cultural Diversity vol. 4, pp. 110-117.
Abstract: Violence has reached epidemic proportions in the United States, with African American males residing in urban areas bearing the brunt of this epidemic. The violence permeating our society emanates from a variety of societal ills, including poverty, racism, substance abuse and exposure to violence. Traditionally, methods of research on adolescent violence have focused on an identification of associated risk factors. The majority of African American adolescents living in communities with widespread and chronic violence grow up to be law-abiding citizens. The reason for this may be due to resiliency within these adolescents. Resiliency has been defined as the ability to experience adverse circumstances and successfully overcome them. Resiliency is enhanced through three mechanisms identified as protective factors: individual characteristics/traits; familial traits; and extrafamilial relationships. The risks faced may be altered, and even ameliorated, through the presence of these protective factors. The purpose of this paper is to identify protective factors within the family that foster resiliency. Protective factors within they family may be categorized as having three broad characteristics: caring and support, high expectations, and encouragement of participation and involvement for the adolescent. [Source: CI]

Cooper, Jewell Egerton. 1997. ""I Want to Be Like Me": An Ethnographic Study of Factors Affecting Ethnic Identity Development in Contemporary African-American Adolescents." Ph.D. Thesis, The University of North Carolina At Greensboro.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to describe sociocultural and pedagogical factors affecting ethnic identity development in contemporary African American adolescents. Identity formation should include personal identity and ethnic group identity. As adolescents seek to know themselves and their places in the world, their cultures help to shape who they are. School and home-community cultures play significant roles in not only personal identity, but also in ethnic group identity as well. Ethnographic research methodology was used to collect informants' accounts. Several data collection methods were used, including audiotaped ethnographic interviews, audiotaped semi-structured interviews, participant observations and observing participant observations. A microlevel analysis was conducted for each informant. A macrolevel analysis was conducted for the collective accounts of the informants. Macrocultural themes evolved as factors affecting the informants' ethnic identity development. Among the school and home-community cultural scenes, macrocultural themes revealed that though school created dissonance with their home-community cultures, the informants were motivated and challenged to prove themselves to people whom they felt doubted their abilities. The home-community cultures, through responsible parenting, religion, the challenges of and responses to being Black, and their determination to succeed strengthened informants' resolves to be productive and successful members of their ethnic group. Implications for teacher education based on the results in this study include: (1) the need for curriculum reform with the implementation of a multicultural, education curriculum; (2) the need for teacher education programs to include belief exploration; (3) the placement of practicum students and student teachers in schools with culturally diverse students and teachers; (4) the continued need for reflective inquiry; (5) the need for greater knowledge of students by teachers; and (6) the need for the ongoing use of different models of teaching and learning styles. Based on the results of this study, recommendations for further research in teacher education include: (1) more ethnographic studies of the relationship between culture and school successes; (2) ethnographic research with other ethnic minority students; (3) continued research in belief exploration of preservice and inservice teachers; (4) more studies investigating identity formation of nonmainstream adolescent groups and the relationship between identity formation and school success; and (5) longitudinal research studies investigating the effect of multicultural education curricula on teaching and learning. [Source: DA]

Franklin, Robert Michael. 1997. Another Day's Journey: Black Churches Confronting the American Crisis. Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press.

Gibbs, J. T. 1997. "African-American Suicide: A Cultural Paradox." Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior vol. 27, pp. 68-79.
Abstract: African-American suicide rates have traditionally been lower than White rates despite a legacy of racial discrimination, persistent poverty, social isolation, and lack of community resources. This paper focuses on four issues: (1)patterns and trends of Black suicide across the lifespan; (2) risk and protective factors in subgroups of Blacks; (3) the influence of cultural factors on suicide patterns of Blacks; and (4) implications of these patterns for prevention and early intervention of suicidal behavior among African Americans. Risk factors for Black suicide include: male sex, early adulthood, substance abuse, psychiatric disorders, family or interpersonal conflict, antisocial behavior, and homosexuality. Protective factors that mitigate the risks of suicide include religiosity, older age, southern residence, and social support. Implications for preventive policies and programs are discussed to counter the recent trend of rising suicide rates among adolescents and very elderly Blacks. [Source: SC]

Gilfort, April Jackson. 1997. "The Relationship of Cultural Theme Discussion to Engagement with Acting out, African-American Male Adolescents in Family Therapy." Ph.D. Thesis, Temple University.
Abstract: The following study examines the relationship between cultural theme discussion within the therapy session and adolescent behaviors that characterize engagement and disengagement (i.e. therapeutic relationship, patient participation, exploration, and negativity). Discussion of nine cultural themes (trust/mistrust, anger/rage, alienation, respect/disrespect, spirituality, the journey from boyhood to manhood, issues of racial identity and socialization, racism, and hopelessness) with substance using, conduct disordered, African American male adolescents in family therapy was examined as a way to enhance the therapy engagement of these adolescents within Multidimensional Family Therapy. During sessions when these adolescents were judged to be the most engaged, when they were rated to have the highest level of collaboration with their therapist, and when they were judged to be exploring their feelings and emotions to the highest level, it was found that these young, African American men discussed their Journey from Boyhood to Manhood in the very next session. Additionally, it was found that when adolescents and their therapists spend more time discussing the themes of anger/rage, alienation, and Journey from Boyhood to Manhood they show more behaviors characterizing engagement and less behaviors which characterize disengagement in the same session and in the session following their highest level of discussion. [Source: DA]

Hill, Dartanya G., Sr. 1997. "Kwanzaa: Youth Crime and Violence Prevention and Treatment Program." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project proposes, implements, and evaluates a pilot program to reduce and reverse youth crime and violence, enlisting 10 young people referred by courts in mentoring, biblical instruction, counseling, and restitution through community service. Mentoring is valuable in reversing behavior associated with fatherlessness. Occupying the time of troubled youth and offering them a sense of belonging through youth-specific activities can be effective in promoting socially appropriate values. Participants in the pilot program do not return to court, and several of them find employment, accept personal responsibility for shared community living, and exhibit improved attitudes. [Source: RI]

Jagers, Robert J., Paula Smith, Lynne Owens Mock, and Ebony Dill. 1997. "An Afrocultural Social Ethos: Component Orientations and Some Social Implications." Journal of Black Psychology vol. 23, pp. 328-343.
Abstract: Discusses the results of two studies exploring the component orientations of spirituality, affect, & communalism in an Afrocultural social ethos & their connections with pyschosocial functioning in inner-city African-American youth. In both studies, positive endorsement & moderate positive correlations among the orientations are expressed. Study 1 questionnaire data (N = 84 students in grades 5-6) indicate that an Afrocultural social ethos is predictive of more cooperative & competitive academic attitudes & lower levels of Machiavellianism. Spirituality emerges as a positive predictor of two academic attitudes. Study 2 questionnaire data (N = 77 students in grades 6-7) indicate that an Afrocultural ethos is predictive of empathy & a more altruistic view of human nature. At the level of orientations, affect is a unique predictor of these variables. Gender, rather than cultural ethos or orientations, is predictive of peer-rated prosocial behaviors. Discussion focuses on implications for future research on culture & the social development of African-American youth. [Source: SA]

Johnson, Lou. 1997. "Christian Rites of Passage for African-American Youth." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project was designed to empower and equip African-American sixteen and seventeen-year-old male and female youth for passage into adulthood. The project was successfully implemented at the Friendship Missionary Baptist Church, Vallejo, California. A 'Christian Rites of Passage Curriculum Guide' was developed for the growth of these youth in: (1) Christian consciousness and commitment; and (2) Afrocentric cultural history, heritage, and identity; the product of which is self esteem. The project is tautological and relevant for Church leaders and parents as a teaching guide for youth preparing for twenty-first century living. [Source: PI]

Lewis, Averetta Elizabeth. 1997. "The Relationship of Age, Religiosity, and Depression on Risk-Related Behaviors among African-American Mothers." Ph.D. Thesis, Michigan State University.
Abstract: The purpose of this study was to compare the relationship of age, religiosity, and depression on risk related behaviors among African-American mothers. An aspect of risk behaviors that has gained increased attention is sexual risk behavior. The rise of sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), human immunovirus (HIV), and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) are rising in the African-American female population. However, missing in the literature are studies that correlate the risk related behaviors, religiosity, and depression in adolescent and adult African-American mothers. An integrated framework derived from the Health Belief Model and the Social Control Theory was used to guide the study. It is believed that adult mothers being more mature, are less likely to engage in risk related behaviors than are adolescent mothers. In a retrospective, exploratory study, using secondary analysis of data, a data set of 127, (78 adolescent African-American mothers--ages 12-17) and (49 adult African-American mothers ages 18 and older) was analyzed. This data set was obtained from the Ethnic Families Research Project (EFRP) of H. P. McAdoo, PhD conducted in 1994-1997. Three areas were examined: First, age, as it relates to risky behaviors, is explored using five risk-related indicators: (a) the inconsistent or lack of use of birth control; (b) the non use of condoms or abstinence (as compared to all of those not using birth control other than condoms and all of those who are not using birth control); (c) experienced an unwanted pregnancy and birth; (d) experienced an unwanted miscarriage or abortion; and (e) the use of illicit drugs. Second, the relationship of depression to risky sexual behaviors is examined through the use of the five risk-related indicators and responses from the Beck Depression Index. Lastly, the relationship of religiosity to risky sexual behaviors is explored using the five risk-related indicators. The independent variables for this study were: age, religiosity, and depression. Dependent variables consisted of five risk-related indicators: (a) the inconsistent or lack of use of birth control; (b) the non use of condoms or abstinence as compared to all of those not using birth control other than condoms and all of those who are not using birth control; (c) experienced an unwanted pregnancy and birth; (d) experienced an unwanted miscarriage or abortion; and (e) the use of drugs. Findings revealed that there was no significant differences in the age of the mothers, level of religion, depression, and risky sexual behaviors. The practical and policy implications of this study were also examined. [Source: DA]

Mack, Sir Walter Lee, Jr. 1997. "The Use of Luke 15 to Empower Reconciliation among Male Juvenile Delinquents in the African-American Community." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project establishes mutual relationships between African-American juvenile delinquents and members of New Hope Granville Baptist Church (Oxford, NC), in order to help these young men become reconciled with God, themselves, and other human beings while changing their attitudes toward crime through spiritual, educational, and recreational activities. The parables of Luke 15 become the paradigm of reconciliation for the church and these troubled young men. [Source: RI]

Noell, Alice Alston. 1997. "Developing an Ecumenical Mentoring Ministry to African- American Males." D.Min. Thesis, Drew University.
Abstract: Mitchell Chapel Church is an African-American church located in Pittsboro, North Carolina. Mitchell, a divided church that had no sense of mission, became concerned about the plight of African-American males who did not have appropriate role models and decided to sponsor a mentoring project with a local middle school. Eighteen persons were given training. After the training sessions were completed, participants were each assigned one young African-American male student. At the end of the project, the youth showed improvement in areas of school attendance and school classwork, self- esteem, relationships and negative behavior. Mitchell Chapel embraced the gift of ministry, of nurturing others and acted out its servants role in the faith context of community. [Source: DA]

Redmond, Dyke Harold. 1997. "The Empowerment of Youth with Multimedia Production Skills for the African American Church Media Ministry." D.Min. Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project was designed to address the need for African American Churches to develop media ministries by empowering under-utilized youth with multimedia production skills. The goal of this project was to create a model for media ministry in the Black Church which will address the development of new and positive African American images, multimedia technology production skills training and spiritual growth. Results of this spiritually based project were evaluated by qualitative analysis instruments and shows that this model can serve as a prototype for multimedia ministry for the twenty-first century Church. [Source: DA]

Reid, Neil Waldemar. 1997. "Target Youth: Toward a New Paradigm to Nurture Holistically Black Urban Youth within the Ephesus Seventh-Day Adventist Church." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project proposes and implements a new model of youth ministry to nurture the personhood of urban young people between the ages of 15 and 21 in Ephesus Seventh-day Adventist Church in New York's Harlem district. Senior youth leaders, parents, and church leaders design, implement, and evaluate 10 Bible-based lessons targeting mental, physical, and environmental issues for liberation of black youth in an urban context. The project leads to positive changes in comprehension, attitudes, and behaviors among participating young people. [Source: RI]

Smith, Fred Douglas, Jr. 1997. "Without a Vision: A Functional Theological Proposal for a Prophetic Christian Religious Education for Black Boys." Thesis, Emory University, Atlanta.
Abstract: This dissertation seeks to develop a response to the violence in the lives of contemporary African-American male youth. Violence is a public health issue because it is the leading cause of death and injury among African-American youth. It is a spiritual and religious issue because it originates in nihilism. The religious basis for violence is found in the myth of redemptive violence which claims that violence saves or at least works to solve most human problems. Four case studies trace the way in which this myth works in the lives of African-American young men. The question this study seeks to answer is what religious education praxis can make a difference in the lives of these young men? First, a narrative theological method is used to explore how meaning is made in the lives of these young men. Second, the sociological and psychological aspects of oppression are examined as obstacles to meaning for these young men. An answer is found in a prophetic Christian religious education in which Jesus Christ is presented as an alternative model of desire and human behavior. The theoretical work of Rene Girard, Walter Wink, Theophus Smith, and Robert Hamerton-Kelly on acquisitive mimetic desire provides the theoretical structure for exploring the dynamics of violence among African-American young men and the construction of a theory of Christian religious education to inform public health and religious communities which seek to correct the misdirected quest for transcendence in the violence in African-American youth culture. This dissertation is a functional theological exploration of human nature and history as it relates to the violent education of young African-American males over the last two hundred years. It explores this educational history by means of a metaphorical narrative theological method to undercover root metaphors that have violently shaped the lives of these young men over the centuries. It then develops a prophetic Christian religious education proposal. [Source: PI]

Stevenson, Howard C. 1997. "Managing Anger: Protective, Proactive, or Adaptive Racial Socialization Identity Profiles and African-American Manhood Development." Journal of Prevention and Intervention in the Community vol. 16, pp. 35-61.
Abstract: African-American male risk and resilience are viewed as two sides of the same coin in this study that investigates the stability of cluster profiles of racial socialization beliefs. Responses of 208 urban African-American adolescent males from three different samples were used to empirically derive factors of spiritual/ religious coping, extended family caring, cultural pride reinforcement, and racial awareness, which were then submitted to exploratory and confirmatory cluster analyses. Three reliable clusters were found across the samples and were identified as protective, proactive, and adaptive racial socialization beliefs. One-way ANOVAs were conducted on each sample separately and then combined with various psychosocial variables including anger expression, depression, religiosity, calamity fears, and kinship social support. The results supported the hypothesis that young males who hold an adaptive or proactive racial socialization identity tend to demonstrate more prosocial adjustment outcomes. The implications for prevention and community services are suggested. [Source: PI]

Sutherland, M. S., C. D. Hale, G. J. Harris, P. Stalls, and D. Foulk. 1997. "Strengthening Rural Youth Resiliency through the Church." Journal of Health Education vol. 28, pp. 205-218.
Abstract: A coalition of six African American churches in Jackson County, Florida was formed in the mid-1980s, first to provide prevention services to older church and community members. Alliance services were expanded later to include alcohol, tobacco, and other drugs (ATOD) at risk youth. Project year one (1991) (or fiscal year 1991-92) served as the baseline comparison year. Each church was of a size where all participating youth could be identified and given the opportunity to contribute data. Accordingly, these same youth were surveyed both in project years one and four (fiscal year 1994-95). Data were gathered by trained interviewers using jury validated questionnaires. Self-reports of substance use have been found to be relatively stable across time. Significance was tested using the chi-square test for equality of proportions. There is strong indication of substantial behavior change. Fifteen of the 34 target attitudes and behaviors showed statistically significant changes. In general, most of the changes were positive. In 1994 (compared to 1991) children were more likely to avoid drinking alcohol, stay away from bad situations, count on their friends for help when confronting serious problems, less likely to participate when friends "get high," have healthier self-images, and perform better in school. Gender had no effect on responses. [Source: CI]

Thornton, James Arthur. 1997. "The Church Bridging the Gap between Community and Public Schools for Students of African Descent." D.Min. Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project was designed to bridge the gap between the community and the public schools. Its objective is to enhance the academic, social and cultural development of youth of African Descent. The project was undertaken in District 17 of the New York City Public School System, and the Salem Missionary Baptist Church, located in East Flatbush, Brooklyn. Results of the model were measured by evaluating a subset of the students' report cards and by conducting interviews with teachers and parents regarding the overall development of each student. [Source: DA]

Turner, Reginald A. 1997. "An Examination of the Adolescent African American Male's Attitude Towards the Church and Pastoral Response." Thesis, Andover Newton Theological School.
Abstract: This project recognizes the distinctive religious tendencies of African Americans, manifest in the African American church as the community's longest surviving and most significant social institution. It is therefore useful to determine what contribution the church has made in shaping perceptions of the church among African American youth today and for tomorrow. The project investigates responses of churches and clergy to the growing number of single-parent families and the tensions between adolescent males and the church in the inner city. [Source: RI]

Albrecht, Stan L., Cheryl Amey, and Michael K. Miller. 1996. "Patterns of Substance Abuse among Rural Black Adolescents." Journal of Drug Issues vol. 26, pp. 751-781.
Abstract: Data from the most recent Monitoring the Future survey (N = 12,168 high school seniors) are used to examine the role of race & residence in substance abuse patterns. Consistent with previously reported research, residence differences are modest, & black youth are much less likely then whites to report drug use. In the bivariate analysis, major correlates of use include gender, family structure, religious attendance, grade point average (GPA), & availability of unearned income. In the multivariate analysis, race, family structure, religious attendance, GPA, & unearned income remain significant. The potential protective role played by family & church in drug use by rural, black adolescents is discussed. [Source: SA]

Brody, Gene H., Zolinda Stoneman, and Douglas Flor. 1996. "Parental Religiosity, Family Processes, and Youth Competence in Rural, Two-Parent African-American Families." Developmental Psychology vol. 32, pp. 696-706.
Abstract: A model that linked parental formal religiosity to children's academic competence and socioemotional adjustment during early adolescence was tested. The sample included 90 9- to 12-year-old African American youths and their married parents living in the rural South. The theoretical constructs in the model were measured through a multimethod, multi-informant design. Rural African American community members participated in the development of the self-report instruments and observational research methods. Greater parental religiosity led to more cohesive family relationships, lower levels of interparental conflict, and fewer externalizing and internalizing problems in the adolescents. Formal religiosity also indirectly influenced youth self-regulation through its positive relationship with family cohesion and negative relationship with interparental conflict. [Source: PI]

Fang, X. Y., B. Stanton, X. M. Li, D. Romer, J. Galbraith, and S. Feigelman. 1996. "Similarity of Risk and Protective Behaviours among African- American Pre- and Early Adolescent Members of Naturally Occurring Friendship Groups." Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine vol. 73, pp. 285-300.
Abstract: To determine whether self-reported risk and protective behaviors, expectations, and attitudes are more similar among African-American early adolescents within a community-based friendship group than across groups, a cross-sectional study was conducted among 382 African-American youth 9 through 15 years of age forming 76 community-based groups of 3 through 10 same-gender friends. Each member of the friendship group reported his/her own past involvement in nine risk behaviors (sexual intercourse, substance abuse, drug-trafficking, and other delinquent activities) and two protective behaviors (high academic performance and regular church attendance) and their expectations and feelings regarding several of these behaviors. Intraclass correlation coefficients were calculated overall and by gender and age. Members were generally more similar within friendship groups than across groups with regard to several risk behaviors and expectations including sexual intercourse and drug-trafficking. Particularly striking was the similarity among members of ''junior'' friendship groups (e.g., median age of youth +ADw-11 years) of both risk and protective behaviors and expectations. The finding of enhanced similarity of risk behaviors and expectations among members within groups suggests that intervention delivery through community-based friendship groups may be a useful approach for risk prevention efforts targeting pre-adolescent African-American youth living in low- income settings. [Source: SC]

Jagers, Robert J. 1996. "Culture and Problem Behaviors among Inner-City African-American Youth: Further Explorations." Journal of Adolescence vol. 19, pp. 371-381.
Abstract: The relationship between cultural associations & problem behaviors among African-American inner-city children in a large midwestern US city was examined in a questionnaire survey examining the endorsement & impact of various cultural influences (N = 119 fifth & sixth graders). Drawing on A. W. Boykin's triple quandary framework (1983), it is argued that African-American children must negotiate between three primary cultural influences: Afrocultural, which emphasizes spirituality, affect, & communalism; Anglocultural, which endorses material well-being, effort optimism, individualism, & competition; & the minority marginalized realm, which is characterized by feelings of alienation & repression. Findings suggests that inner-city African Americans responded positively to all features of Afrocultural identity while also placing faith in the Anglocultural ideals of hard work & sacrifice. However, concern with material gain was correlated with school problems & involvement in gangs & street activity, & it is argued that the actual experiences of the more troubled adolescents evidenced the abandonment of communalism in favor of predatory individualism & objectification of others. Further, strong endorsement of Afrocultural ideals was associated with fewer aggressive & delinquent behaviors. Directions for future research are briefly discussed. [Source: SA]

Johnson, D. Maurice. 1996. "The Teen Connection Ministry: The African-American Church and Youth Peer Counseling." Thesis, Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, D.C.
Abstract: The Teen Connection project proposes that a peer counseling ministry can help to meet social, emotional, and spiritual needs of youth in the African American church. The project employs a pro-active research method to study the practice of peer counseling with African American youth. The Teen Connection project found that African American youth desire help from others, are receptive to help from peers, and are willing to be trained to help peers. Teen Connection peer counselors demonstrated their capability and willingness to become involved in responsible and challenging Christian service that ministered to the needs of their peers. Peer counselors report positive response from peer counselees and parents, and most of them claimed that the process helped them to address their own personal needs. [Source: RI]

Jones Harris, Jewel L. 1996. "African-American Adolescent Parents: Their Perceptions of Sex, Love, Intimate Relationships, Pregnancy, and Parenting." Ph.D. Thesis, Virginia Commonwealth University.
Abstract: This study examined the perceptions of twenty-two urban African American adolescent mothers and six adolescent fathers regarding their perceptions of sex, love, intimate relationships, pregnancy, and parenting. A structured interview methodology was used in combination with focus groups and academic records to determine the parents' perceptions, as well as their demographic and personal history information. An inductive data analysis using constant comparison methods was employed to identify patterns and themes evident within gender groups and between gender groups. The findings identified eight assumptions. The findings of this study indicate that: (1) The age of menses may have declined. (2) The age at first sexual intercourse does not necessarily lead to more sexual partners by first pregnancy. (3) The age of an adolescent mother's own mother when she had her first child may predict an early pregnancy for her daughter. (4) Adolescent parents did not necessarily equate love and intimate relationships with having sex. (5) Adolescent mothers did not necessarily consider their need to give or receive love as reasons for their pregnancy. (6) Adolescent parents may be deficient in their knowledge of child development. (7) Adolescent parents are not necessarily abusive parents. (8) Early parenthood may be a consequence of educational derailment. (9) Poverty may precede adolescent pregnancy. Implications of these findings include the need for intensive academic and vocational preparation programs for urban African American adolescents, more consistent, specific, and comprehensive sex education and family planning programs, and more business, community, and religion-driven mentoring programs for inner-city youth. Suggestions for future research were also addressed. [Source: DA]

Livingston, Bobby L., Sr. 1996. "The Faith Community Participating as an Advocate for Spiritual Construction and Reconstruction in an Urban Context." Thesis, Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, D.C.
Abstract: This project seeks to eliminate use of illicit drugs by young black males in an urban context by using a pedagogic program/initiative in a faith community. The project found that the root cause of problems involving "crack" cocaine probably stems from economic inequality and the USA's unwillingness to promote fair employment treatment for all citizens. Interdiction by law enforcement agencies and community-based street patrols are among the failed efforts to eradicate the problem. Successful resolutions can occur by using biblical teachings, and through supporting and encouraging courageous mothers and parents who rear their children to understand the importance of respect for authority and love for God, for self, and for others. The project recommends a wholistic approach that involves every segment of our society to rectify the problem. [Source: RI]

Martin, Arrold Nunn. 1996. "Ministry to African-American Children in the Midst of Social Crisis through the Children's Church." Thesis, United Theological Seminary.
Abstract: This project demonstrates ministry to children in social crisis through six months of structured, age-appropriate activities for African-American children between the ages of 8 and 12 in First Baptist Church Capitol Hill (Nashville, Tenn). In teaching of Christian doctrine, discussion of values, and self-esteem adventure programs, the project builds a biblical foundation for these children while enhancing their self-esteem and addressing social challenges that affect their lives. These activities expand and improve the worship experience of the children. [Source: RI]

McCreary, Micah L., Lesley A. Slavin, and Eloise J. Berry. 1996. "Predicting Problem Behavior and Self-Esteem among African-American Adolescents." Journal of Adolescent Research vol. 11, pp. 216-234.
Abstract: Investigates the utility of using stress, social support, & racial identity to predict problem behavior & self-esteem among African-American adolescents. Questionnaire data indicate that stressful life events & lack of perceived support from friends were predictive of problem behavior (eg, drug & alcohol use, delinquent acts) in a sample of 221 African-American high school students attending a Baptist church-sponsored weekend retreat in a southeastern state. Strong support from friends attenuated the effects of stress. Only one racial-identity variable - attitudes toward African-Americans - contributed to the prediction of problem behavior after other variables were entered into the regression equation. More positive attitudes predicted lower levels of problem behavior. Similar results were obtained in a regression analysis using self-esteem as the dependent variable. It is concluded that stress models are useful with African-Americans, particularly if a racial-identity variable is included. [Source: SA]

Murry, Velma McBride. 1996. "An Ecological Analysis of Coital Timing among Middle-Class African American Adolescent Females." Journal of Adolescent Research vol. 11, pp. 261-279.
Abstract: Using data from the 1988 National Survey of Family Growth, variables discriminating between early & late coital initiation among middle-income African American adolescent females (N = 109) were examined. Discriminant function analysis indicates that family structure, adolescents' labor force participation, & religiosity were associated with late coital initiation. Those who lived in two-parent households, had engaged in conversations with parents about sexual issues, & had greater knowledge about sexual matters were more likely to delay age at first coitus until age 18+. The discriminant function classified correctly 94% of the overall grouped cases. Classification within each group resulted in 98% of early coital initiators & 79% of late coital initiators being classified correctly. Results provide support for using a systematic framework for examining the sexual activity patterns of middle-class African American adolescent females & offer suggestions for future research. [Source: SA]

Oler, Carlton Hugh. 1996. "Spirituality, Racial Identity, and Intentions to Use Alcohol and Other Drugs among African-American Youth." Ph.D. Thesis, University of Cincinnati.
Abstract: Two hundred and forty-nine African-American 4th, 5th, and 6th graders attending predominantly African-American secular and non-secular elementary schools participated in a study to investigate the relations of spirituality, racial identity, and intentions to use alcohol and other drugs. The students completed the (1) Children's Drug Use Survey (CDUS), Oetting et al., 1985); (2) Botvin Alcohol and Drug Attitude Scale (BADAS, Botvin et al., 1990); (3) Tentative Drug Use Scale (TDUS, Horan and Williams, 1975); (4) Age Universal Religious Orientation Scale-Revised (AUROS-R, Gorsuch and McPherson, 1989); (5) Religious Commitment Questionnaire (RCQ, Penneck and Epperson, 1985); (6) Banks Scale (BS, Banks, 1984); and a (7) Demographic Information Sheet. The results showed that (1) African-American students higher in spirituality and racial identity did have significantly stronger disapproving attitudes about the use of alcohol and other drugs than those students with lower levels, and that (2) African-American students higher in spirituality evinced greater intentions not to use alcohol and other drugs than those students with lower levels. Additionally, there were a number of significant differences relative to school-type, SES, and grade level. Some differences included that students in non-secular schools had a higher spirituality and racial identity, and engaged in less substance use than students in secular schools, and that students from lower SES backgrounds considered religion more important than students from higher SES backgrounds, although students from higher SES levels attended church more often. Based upon the results of the study, it was concluded that spirituality and racial identity, particularly spirituality, do predict African-American preadolescents' receptivity to the use of alcohol and other drugs, and that efforts should be made to strengthen students in these areas to buffer them from media and peer pressure to use. Limitations of the study and su [Source: PI]

Ramey, Timothy R. 1996. "The Development of a Mentor Ministry to Train the Brotherhood of the Barraque Street Missionary Baptist Church." Thesis, Midwestern Baptist Theological Seminary, Kansas City.
Abstract: This project proposes to combat the rising rate of violent crime and social disintegration among young Black males by preparing Christian men to serve as mentors to neighborhood youth. The project conducted three seminars for church leaders concerning child abuse and its effects, self-esteem among Black males, and substance abuse. These mentors were paired with seven first offenders referred by the juvenile court. Four of these young men significantly improved in academic performance, citizenship behavior, and family relationships. [Source: RI]

Sojourner, Jeannette Swoope. 1996. "Variables That Impact the Education of African-American Students: Parental Involvement, Religious Socialization, Socioeconomic Status, Self-Concept, and Gender." Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Akron, Akron.
Abstract: Empirical studies investigating factors that promote academic achievement among African-American students are limited, more focus has been placed on academic failure and weaknesses. The purpose of this study was to examine school and nonschool factors related to educational attainment of African-American students. Several theories including Irvine's Process Model for Black Student Achievement, Gary and Booker's Empowerment of African-Americans, and the Comer Model suggested variables that were found to be important to the academic success of African-American children in public schools. Specifically, five predictors of mathematics and reading achievement among African-American youth were used in a multiple regression analysis. These variables were parental involvement, religious socialization, self-concept, socioeconomic status, and gender. The National Education Longitudinal Study (NELS) of 1988: First Follow-up was used as the data source to examine these variables. Multiple regression analysis was used to determine if a relationship existed between the five predictor variables and mathematics and reading achievement. In reading achievement, 17.43% of the variance was accounted for by the predictor variables. All five variables were identified as being statistically significant (p < .05). These results indicated that students with high socioeconomic status (SES) and high self-concept had the highest reading achievement. In mathematics achievement, 15.99% of the variance is accounted for by the predictor variables. The variables SES and self-concept were found to be statistically significant (p < .05). High socioeconomic status and high self-concept equals higher academic achievement. [Source: DA]

Stevenson, Howard C., Jocelyn Reed, and Preston Bodison. 1996. "Kinship Social Support and Adolescent Racial Socialization Beliefs: Extending the Self to Family." Journal of Black Psychology vol. 22, pp. 498-508.
Abstract: Explored the relationship between reports of the level of kinship support experienced as members of an extended family network and racial socialization beliefs. 229 African American adolescents were administered the Scale of Racial Socialization for Adolescents (SORS-A), the Kinship Social Support Scale (KSS), and a question regarding the amount of parental communication about racism. Results indicate significant differences between Ss with high, moderate, and low levels of kinship support across 3 of 4 SORS-A factors (i.e., spiritual and religious coping, extended family caring, and cultural pride reinforcement). These factors make up the proactive dimension of adolescent racial socialization beliefs. The protective dimension (i.e., racism awareness teaching) was nonsignificant in relationship to kinship support. [Source: PI]

Stroman, William B. 1996. "God Still Delivers." Thesis, Wesley Theological Seminary, Washington, D.C.
Abstract: This project proposes a different kind of Christian education, about practicing theology. It seeks to provide formation, freedom, identity, justice, and hope for African-American youth. In American cities, including Washington, D.C., these young people are caught up in an epidemic of killings, gangs, and crimes and tragedies related to drugs and alcohol. This project contends that these problems are spiritual as well as societal, making for a crisis of black faith as well as identity. For many African-Americans, hopelessness and despair have replaced faith. Asking what it means to be Black and Christian in contemporary North America, this project delivers a Black theology of liberation to young people of Tabernacle Baptist Church in Washington DC. [Source: RI]

Westmoreland, Cheri Lynn. 1996. "Faith in Action: A Descriptive Case Study of Project Impact, a Comprehensive Juvenile Diversion Program Sponsored by an African-American Church." Ed.D. Thesis, University of Cincinnati.
Abstract: Some African American congregations have established a Project IMPACT program, a comprehensive juvenile diversion program, to assist church and community youth experiencing discipline problems and low academic performance which has the potential to lead to dropping out of school. Project IMPACT Dayton works with the family to enhance youth development educational learning skills, parent effectiveness and provides incentives for the family to work towards strengthening the family unit and participation in the program. The purpose of this study was to identify and describe the organizational mechanisms and the influences of the African American religious experiences and value system that were involved in the planning, development, and implementation of Project IMPACT Dayton by a single urban African American church. The study describes the perceptions of those involved with the project (students, parents, and staff) concerning the program's effectiveness in helping students perform academically and stay in school. A combination of methods were used to describe the comprehensive juvenile diversion program, Project IMPACT Dayton. In this study, the descriptive case study method included the use of participation, observation, interviews and document review as means of data collection. This case study provides certain aspects program evolution in the context of Christian values and mission service operating in this African American church. The case study involves the discussion of the history and mission of the Revival Center Ministries, the development of community outreach, the Project IMPACT program evolution and the values and religious experiences of the African American church that make this program effective. [Source: DA]

Ceballo, Rosario E. 1995. "Living in Dangerous Neighborhoods: The Effects on Poor, African American Single Mothers and Their Children." Ph.D. Thesis, The University of Michigan.
Abstract: This dissertation investigated how families are affected by residing in dangerous, poverty-stricken neighborhoods. Specifically, the study explores the impact of neighborhood characteristics on the parenting behavior of single, African American mothers and on the academic values and socioemotional functioning of their adolescent children. Interview data from a sample of 262 poor, African American, single mothers and their seventh and eighth grade children was utilized. Assessments of neighborhood quality consisted of both subjective and objective measures. The objective neighborhood measures included police crime statistics and U.S. census data. In the first model, greater receipt of social support predicted higher levels of maternal nurturance and this positive relation between social support and nurturance was moderated by neighborhood conditions, for mothers of adolescent boys. As neighborhood conditions worsened, receipt of instrumental social support was no longer as strongly related to mothers' nurturant parenting. This finding was bolstere